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.     \ 


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■  -;/^ 


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PETER  PARLEY'S  LITTLE  LIBRARY. 

This  series  of  entertaining  and  useful  Books  is  designed  for  Children. 
They  will  be  elegantly  printed,  and  handsomely  illustrated  by  Engra- 
vings. They  will  consist  either  of  Biographical  Tales  and  Adventures, 
of  an  authentic  character,  or  lively  and  amusing  descriptions  and  illus- 
trations of  the  Arts  of  Life.  They  will  be  by  different  writers,  but  the 
selection  of  the  works,  and  the  general  superintendence  of  their  publica- 
tion, will  be  committed  to  the  Author  ol  Peter  Parley's  Tales.  The 
following  are  among  the  works  which  will  belong  to  the  series. 

1.  THE  ADVENTURES  OP  CAPT.  JAMES  RILEY,  IN 
AFRICA. 

2.  THE  STORY  OF  JOHN  R.  JEWETT,  the  Captive  of  Nootka 
Sound. 

3.  THE  SHIP,  or  entertaining  descriptions  of  the  Structure  and  Use 
of  a  Ship,  with  Stories  of  Sea  Adventures,  and  a  History  of  the  art  of 
Navigation. 

4.  THE  STORY  OF  LA  PEROUSE,  and  an  account  of  the  voy- 
ages made  to  discover  his  fate. 

5.  THE  FARM,  or  a  new  account  of  rural  scenes,  with  the  toils, 
pleasures,  and  pursuits  of  Farming.    By  J.  Taylor. 

6.  STORY  OF  ALEXANDER  SELKIRK,  who  inhabited  a  soli, 
tary  island,  alone,  for  several  years. 

7.  THE  MINE,  an  entertaining  account  of  Mines  and  Minerals. 

8.  THE  GARDEN,  or  the  art  of  laying  out  and  cultivating  it. 

^^  These  works  are  prepared  with  the  view  of  rendering  them  at- 
tractive to  children,  and  amusing  to  all  classes  of  youthful  readers ;  at 
the  same  time  they  are  calculated  to  impart  knowledge  of  a  useful  kind. 


THE  PARENT'S  PRESENT,  edited  by  the  author  of  Peter  Par- 
ley's Tales. 

H^  This  work  is  very  neatly  printed,  and  is  designed  as  a  Christmas 
or  New  Year's  present,  for  parents  to  their  children. 

PETER  PARLEY'S  PICTURE  BOOK,  with  38  beautiful  Engra- 
vmgs. 

PETER  PARLEY'S  SPELLING  BOOK,  with  175  Engravings, 

PETER  PARLEY^S  BOOK  OF  FABLES,  with  fine  Cuts. 

PETER  PARLEY'S  EVERY  DAY  BOOK,  50  Engravjngs. 


t. 


THE  FARM: 


A  NEW  AND  ENTERTAINmG  ACCOUNT 

OP 

RURAL  SCENES  AND  PURSUITS, 

WITH  THE  ^ 

TOILS,  PLEASURES,  AND  PR0DUCTI01>fe' 

OF 

FARMING. 


Jor^ 


FOR  YOUNG  READERS  IN  THE  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.   LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 

1861. 


(oA^ 


X 


CONTENTS, 


Introduction 

The  Farm-House 

Farming  Buildings 
The  Rick-yard  and  Barns   . 
The  Granaries 
Stables  and  Hay-barns 
Cow-houses,  Piggeries,  &c. 
Size  of  Gable-sides  Farm 
Names  of  the  Fields 
Explanation  of  Names 

Tillage        .... 
The  Plough 
The  Ploughman     . 
The  Harrow 
Manure 


Pag* 

11 

23 
26 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
36 
40 
42 
44 
45 


^3893G 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


Weeding  and  Land-ditching 

Draining  Land 

Bush-harrowing 

Hedging  and  Ditching 

Destruction  of  Vermin 

Rat  and  Mole  catching 
Produce  of  the  Farm 

Wheat  . 

Sowing  Wheat   . 

Sowing  with  the  Drill 

Barley- 
Oats       . 

Rye   . 
Pulse  Crops,  &c. 

Peas  and  Beans 

Tares     . 
'Cow  Cabbages    . 

Mustard  Seed 

Saffron 

Madder 

Coriander  . 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


Caraway  Seeds 
Hops 

Hop-harvest   . 

Hop-picking 
Hemp,  Flax,  and  Teasels 

Hemp 

Flax       . 

Linseed 

Teasels 

Straw 

Haulm  . 

Remarks 
Live  Stock  . 

Oxen 

Sheep    . 

Sheep-shearing  . 

Lambs   . 

Hogs 

Horses  . 
Dairy  and  Poultry  Yard 

Milk      . 


Page. 

86 

87 

89 

90 

92 

93 

95 

97 

98 

99 

101 

102 

103 

104 

108 

109 

110 

111 

113 

119 

121 


Vm  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

The  Churn 122 

Butter .         .123 

Cheese 125 

The  Poultry  Yard  .         .         .         .         .  127 

Turkeys 128 

Common  Fowls      ......  129 

Eggs 132 

Geese 133 

Ducks 135 

Game    . 136 

Hay-making 138 

Mowing 140 

Hay-making 141 

Stacking  the  Hay 145 

Thatching  Hay-stacks  .         .         .         .       149 

Hay-binding  and  Selling      .         .         .         .         .152 

Hay -binding        .         .         .         .         .         .       153 

Disposal  of  the  Hay        .         .         .         .         .  156 

Second  Crops 157 

Grain  Harvest  .  .  •  .  •  .  158 
Reaping 160 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Page. 

Harvest  Season      .         .         .    ^  .         .        .  162 

Grain  Harvest 164 

Threshing  and  Dressing  Grain    •        •        •        •  165 

Threshing  .     ^ 166 

Winnowing  .         .         •         •         •         .169 

Measuring  Grain        .         .         •        .         .171 
Samples         ....*...  173 

Dealers 174* 

The  Grain  Mill      ......  176 

The  Potatoe  Crops 177 

Turnips        . 181 

Grass 183 

Herbage  Plants •        .  188 

Clover        .......       189 

Lucem 190 

Saintfoin 191 

Dealing  and  Money  Matters       •        •        .        .192 
A  Farmer's  Expenses  •        •        .        .       193 

Rent 194 

Leases ^ .       195 

Tithes 197 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Poor  Kates .198 

Wages 199 

Miscellaneous  Expenses  .         .         .         .201 

Misfortunes 202 

A  Farmer's  Comforts 203 


INTRODUCTION. 


I  HAVE,  at  the  moment  of  commencing  the 
following  little  volume,  two  classes  of  readers 
in  my  view — the  one  belonging  to  the  city;  the 
other  to  the  country.  It  is  my  design  to  benefit 
both. 

But,  pray,  what  interest  can  one  born  in  the 
city,  and  who  expects  there  to  spend  his  days, 
have  in  farming  operations  ?    Let  us  see. 

Perhaps  you  are  one  day  to  become  a  mer- 
chant, a  manufacturer,  a  lawyer,  or  a  judge,  and 
you  are  to  live  in  a  fine  house,  either  in  Boston 
or  New  York,  or  some  other  large  city,  and 
you  ask,  what  have  /  to  do  with  farming  ? 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

Now,  you  have  an  interest  in  your  country — 
have  you  not?  You  desire  her  prosperity? 
But  that  prosperity  depends  greatly  upon  the 
fact,  v^hether  the  farmers  flourish  or  not.  Sup- 
pose you  become  a  merchant  You  build  a 
large  store,  and  import  a  great  quantity  of 
goods.  You  aim  to  sell  to  the  farmers.  But  if 
they  are  not  flourishing — if  they  cultivate  their 
lands  badly — if  they  are  indolent — if  they  are 
unenlightened  and  ignorant — they  will  raise  but 
small  quantities  of  wheat  and  com,  and  prepare 
but  little  beef  and  pork  for  market.  In  such  a 
case,  what  will  become  of  your  interest  ?  They 
cannot  purchase  your  goods,  for  they  have  noth- 
ing with  which  to  pay  ;  or  if  you  trust  them  you 
will  lose  your  debts.  Thus,  in  either  case,  if 
the  farmers  flourish  not,  the  merchants  will  not 
flourish.  They  may  import  sugar,  and  coffee, 
and  tea,  into  the  country,  but  it  will  turn  to  no 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

profitable  account,  unless  the  farming  interest 
flourishes. 

Should  you  become  a  manufacturer^  the  same 
things  hold  true.  You  may  erect  large  estab- 
lishments— gather  many  skilful  artisans — and 
produce  large  quantities  of  excellent  and  useful 
articles.  But  what  are  they  all  worth,  if  there 
are  no  purchasers?  And  how  can  there  be 
purchasers,  if  the  farmers  of  the  land  are  poor? 
They  are  a  large  class  of  the  community.  And 
if  they  are  unable  to  purchase,  you  will  have 
but  a  small  demand  for  your  cottons,  your 
carpets,  your  nails,  your  axes,  and  the  like. 

And  besides,  if  the  farming  interest  flags,  as 
they  say,  who  is  to  support  the  mechanics? 
Where  will  you  obtain  your  wheat,  your  rye, 
your  potatoes,  your  beef,  your  pork,  and  other 
necessaries,  while  you  are  carrying  forward 
your  manufacturing  interests  ? 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

But  perhaps  you  intend  to  become  a  lawyer 
or  di  judge.  Well,  these  are  honourable  profes- 
sions— but  even  then  you  will  be  dependent 
upon  farmers.  For  if  they  bring  nothing  to 
market,  all  your  learning  will  not  produce  for 
you  one  loaf  of  bread,  or  serve  up  on  your 
tables  one  roast  turkey. 

You  perceive  then,  city-born,  and  city -bred, 
as  you  may  be,  you  have  an  interest  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  farmers  of  the  land.  All 
other  professions  in  Hfe  are  dependent  upon 
this  class  of  the  community.  Stop  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  we  could  have  no  com- 
merce and  no  manufactures — w^e  could  have 
no  large  towns,  nor  splendid  cities. 

People  of  the  city  are  sometimes  wont  to 
look  down  upon  those  of  the  country.  This  is 
wrong.  The  profession  of  agriculture  is  most 
honourable   and  important.      You  may  gather, 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

from  what  I  have  said,  somewhat  of  the  depend- 
ence of  all  classes  upon  farmers. 

And  hence  you  may  learn  the  importance  of 
knowing  something  about  farming.  The  more 
you  are  acquainted  with  the  subject,  the  more 
just  sentiments  you  will  entertain  of  its  impor- 
tance— of  Its  pleasures — of  its  perplexities. 
You  will  perceive  the  justice  of  giving  to  the 
farmer  a  good  price  for  what  has  cost  him  so 
much  toil.  You  will  encourage  him  by  every 
means  in  your  power,  and  on  a  wet  day,  or  a 
cold  morning  in  January,  when  he  has  come 
some  ten  or  a  dozen  miles  to  bring  you  the  rich 
productions  of  his  land,  you  will  not  be  so 
much  disposed  to  get  a  ''good  bargairC^  at  his 
expense. 

Besides,  with  some  knowledge  of  farming 
you  will  be  better  able  to  judge  of  the  qualities 
of  the  products  which  are  brought  to  market. 


IG  INTRODUCTION. 

Farmers  generally  know  more  than  others  by 
inspection  about  the  fine  or  poor  qualities  of 
wheat  and  rye — of  corn  and  potatoes.  And 
such  knowledge  would  be  valuable  to  you,  in 
almost  any  department  of  life,  especially  if  you 
should  one  day  have  a  family,  and  need  to 
purchase  the  materials  of  living  for  them. 

And  lastly,  I  would  set  forth  to  my  city 
readers  the  value  of  some  acquaintance  with 
farming  on  the  score  of  pleasure.  You  some- 
times make  excursions  into  the  country.  What 
a  gratification  to  be  able  to  make  the  distinction 
between  good  and  bad  husbandry!  What  a 
source  of  pleasure  to  be  able  to  pronounce,  in 
any  given  case,  whether  a  farm  is  well  taken 
care  of — to  determine  whether  a  field  is  well 
ploughed! — or  well  mowed! — or  well  reaped! 
— to  decide  as  to  the  good  or  bad  qualities  of 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

the  horses,  or  cattle,  or  sheep,  or  swine,  which 
you  notice  as  you  pass  along. 

Some  knowledge  on  these  points  you  may 
obtain  without  spending  an  apprenticeship  to 
farming.  You  may  learn  much  from  books. 
And  it  is  one  design  of  this  Uttle  volume  to 
impart  some  just  ideas  on  the  subject  for  your 
benefit. 

But  I  write  for  another  class  also.  I  expect 
a  portion  of  my  readers  belong  to  the  country. 
They  are  the  young  farmers  of  the  land — the 
bones  and  sinews  of  society — coming  forward 
rapidly,  and  every  thing  wdll  soon  depend  upon 
them. 

I  need  not  dwell  long  on  the  importance  to 
this  class  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  farming. 
I  might  with  as  much  propriety  talk  of  skill  to 
the  tailor  in  handling  his  sheers  and  his  needle. 
Every  one  knows  this.  And  many  farmers 
2  B 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

know  that  without  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
their  business,  they  are  liable  to  make  poor  crops 
and  "to  come  out  at  the  little  end  of  the  horn," 
as  the  saying  is. 

But  leaving  so  plain  a  point  as  this,  I  would 
say  a  few  w^ords  to  my  young  friends  in  the 
country  on  the  dignity  and  independence  of 
their  employment. 

The  life  of  a  farmer  is  indeed  employed  about 
the  earth.  But  it  is  no  mean  concern.  Cincin- 
natus  was  a  farmer.  Washington  was  a  farmer. 
And  in  older  times  Abraham  cultivated  flocks 
and  herds — and  David,  who  in  after  years  sat 
upon  the  throne  of  Israel,  was  himself  a  shep- 
herd. No  man  in  society  is  so  independent  as 
the  farmer.  He  hves  more  entirely  within  him- 
self than  any  other  class.  He  raises  the  neces- 
saries, and  not  a  few  of  the  comforts  and  luxuries 
of  hfe.     Nor  is  any  profession  more  dignified, 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

or  more  removed  from  temptations  to  pride  and 
vice. 

What  a  delightful  spot  in  this  w^orld  of  briers 
and  thorns  is  the  habitation,  w^ith  its  surrounding 
acres,  of  an  honest,  industrious,  thrifty  farmer ! 
What  an  air  of  neatness  and  comfort  all  things 
wear !  Even  the  grass  seems  to  look  greener 
than  elsewhere — the  shrubbery,  all  weeded  out, 
smiles  forth  in  the  beauty  of  its  flowers — the 
well  trimmed  trees  put  forth  a  richer  fohage — the 
cattle  seem  to  feel  their  superiority — the  lambs 
skip  somewhat  more  gaily,  and  even  chanticleer 
raises  his  clarion  voice  some  notes  higher. 

I  love  to  dwell  on  such  a  scene ;  and  I  would 
wish  to  inspire  my  litde  readers  in  the  country 
with  contentment  with  their  allotment.  They 
are  among  the  most  happy,  honored,  and  blessed 
of  this  world.  At  least  they  may  easily  become 
so.    And  although  the  business  of  farming  is 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

sometimes  depressed,  and  is  always  a  slow  mode 
of  gaining  wealth;  yet  it  is  a  far  more  sm*e 
method  than  by  means  of  trade,  in  which  every 
thing  almost  is  fluctuating  and  insecure.  A 
merchant's  goods  may  easily  be  consumed,  and 
his  debtors  may  fail  to  pay  him  his  honest  dues. 
But  the  acres  of  the  farmer  are  fire-proof  and 
fast  anchored.  If  he  possesses  but  little,  that 
little  is  comparatively  sure.  The  man  of  wealth 
in  the  city,  who  rides  in  his  coach  to-day,  may 
not  even  have  a  wagon  to  ride  in  to-morrow. 
But  the  farmer  generally  has  this  latter  vehicle, 
at  all  times. 

One  thing  farther,  before  I  conclude  this 
introduction.  This  little  volume,  to  which  I 
introduce  mf  readers,  is  principally  the  work  of 
an  English  author.  It  tells  much  about  English 
husbandry.  I  have  introduced  into  it  some 
account  of  husbandry  in  the  United  States.    I 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

was  the  more  willing  to  avail  myself  of  the 
advantages  of  this  work,  as  it  will  serve  to  give 
some  just  notions  of  the  English  style  of  farm- 
ing, which  in  some  respects  is  superior  to  our 
own,  especially  as  to  neatness  and  order.  En- 
glishmen, who  visit  us,  are  sometimes  disgusted 
with  the  appearance  of  our  farms  and  our 
villages,  for  in  their  own  land  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  see  them  adorned  by  th-e  hand  of 
system  and  taste. 

Let  my  little  readers  rivet  well  this  matter  in 
their  minds.  Should  they  ever  become  farmers, 
let  them  not  forget  that  neatness  and  order  are 
among  the  cardinal  virtues  of  a  good  farmer. 
Without  them,  he  cannot  prosper,  nor  will  his 
house  and  home  be  long  pleasant  to  him. 
Besides,  these  are  important  in  point  of  moral 
influence.  Persons  who  are  neat  and  attentive 
to  method  are  more  likely  to  be  good,  than  the 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

slovenly  and  the  careless.  Fix  well  then  'in 
your  minds  the  old  maxim,  for  it  is  worth  a 
thousand  times  more  than  its  weight  of  gold, 
"Have  a  place  for  every  thing,  and  keep  every 
thing  in  its  place." 

I  shall  conclude  my  introduction  with  some 
useful  lines,  which  I  think  it  would  be  well  for 
every  young  farmer  to  learn — and  every  old 
farmer  to  practise : — 

Let  order  o'er  your  time  preside, 

And  method  all  your  business  guide. 

One  thing  at  once,  be  still  begun. 

Contrived,  resolved,  pursued,  and  done ; 

Ne'er  till  to-morrow's  light  delay, 

What  might  as  well  be  done  to-day. 

Neat  be  your  bams,  jour  houses  neat, 

Your  doors  be  clean  :  your  court-yards  sweet ; 

Neat  be  your  barns ;  'tis  long  confessed, 

The  neatest  farmers  are  the  best. 


THE  FARM-HOUSE. 


I  SHALL  begin  by  presenting  to  my  readers 
a  view  of  a  farm-house,  and  as  I  happen  to  have 
only  an  engraving  of  an  English  one,  I  shall 
present  them  v^ith  that.     See  the  frontispiece. 

The  name  of  the  house  is  Peak  Hall,  or  as 
the  country  people  in  England  usually  call  it, 
^'Gablesides.^^  It  was  formerly  the  residence 
of  a  wealthy  lord  in  Essex,  in  which  county  it 
is  situated.  It  was  not  originally  designed  for 
a  farm-house.  Yet  it  is  now  the  delightful  resi- 
dence of  a  thrifty  English  farmer,  who  has 
some  four  hundred  acres  of  excellent  land  about 
him,  and  who   cultivates  it   in   the   neat   and 


24  THE  FARM-HOUSE. 

excellent  manner  of  the  English  farmer.  The 
house  obtained  not  either  of  those  names  with- 
out a  cause ;  for  its  roof-peaks,  or  gable-ends, 
are  no  fewer  than  twelve  in  number.  Three  of 
them  form  the  roof  on  one  side;  two  on 
another;  three  at  the  back.  Two  projections 
for  staircases  have  each  a  gable ;  and  the  very- 
roomy  porch  in  front  has  two.  The  building  is 
all  of  red  brick,  and  exhibits  in  front  some  curi- 
ous sculptured  ornaments  in  that  material.  The 
windows  are  of  diamond  quarry  glass,  and,  like 
those  of  churches,  have  strong  stone  muUions, 
or  partitions,  instead  of  wooden  frames.  The 
ivy  on  the  further  side  has  crept  unmolested 
nearly  to  the  garret  windows;  and  hangs 
nodding  from  the  porch-roof  in  a  very  pictu- 
resque manner.  Two  enormous  six-columned 
chimneys  stand  twenty-five  feet  higher  than 
the  ridge  tiles,  and  give  a  sort  of  dignity  to  the 


THE  FARM-HOUSE.  25 

building.  The  front  door  is  six  feet  wide, 
seven  feet  high,  and  nearly  three  inches  thick. 
It  is  studded  with  eight  hundred  and  nine  iron 
knobs ;  it  has  an  iron  grating,  about  six  inches 
square,  through  which  to  parley  with  strangers 
after  night-fall ;  and  it  swings  on  hinges,  reach- 
ing the  whole  width  of  the  door.  The  sides  of 
the  porch  have  twisted  spiral  balusters,  through 
which  to  look,  without  going  from  under  shelter. 
It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  front  of  this 
ancient  dwelling,  pretty  and  remarkable  as  it  is, 
can  be  seen  completely  from  the  road  leading 
nearest  to  it.  The  farming  buildings,  as  is 
common  in  soxne  parts  of  England,  stand  nearly 
before  it.  The  long  barn  and  cow-sheds,  if 
they  did  not  stand  on  rather  lower  ground, 
would  hide  the  house  altogether.  The  frontis- 
piece gives  as  good  a  view  as  can  be  taken,  and 
is  from  a  spot  at  a  short  distance  from  the  bridge. 
C 


26  FARMING  BUILDINGS. 

As  in  farming  we  have  a  good  deal  to  d\.» 
with  acres,  I  may  as  well  state  here,  that  four 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty  square  yards 
make  one  square  acre,  and  that  each  side  of 
that  space  will  therefore  be  about  sixty-nine 
yards  and  a  half  long.  Each  acre  contains  four 
roods,  each  rood  forty  poles,  and  each  pole 
rather  more  than  thirty  yards.  Our  farm-yard 
occupies,  with  the  various  buildings,  about  five 
roods,  or  an  acre  and  a  quarter.  The  buildings 
are  principally  these: — two  great  barns;  sta- 
bles; two  granaries;  hay -barns,  cow-houses, 
piggeries,  hen-houses,  pigeon-houses,  and  a 
cottage  for  our  head  man  and  his  family; 
though  this  scarcely  stands  in  the  yard.  There 
is  a  railed  partition,  forming,  with  the  hedges, 
an  inclosure,  called  the  rick-yard.  In  this  part 
stand  now  four  stacks  of  hay,  containing, 
together,  about  two  hundred  loads ;  five  stacks 


28  THE  RICK-YARD  AND  BARN. 

of  wheat-corn;  two  of  clover-hay;  a  bean- 
stack  or  two;  a  fagot-stack;  and  a  tolerably 
large  one  of  straw.  Towards  the  north  the 
cattle  yard  is  fenced  by  a  haulm,  or  stubble- 
wall,  which  has  lasted,  and  is  likely  to  continue 
several  years. 

I  must  now  describe  a  little  more  particu- 
larly the  buildings.  First,  the  bams.  These, 
on  the  usual  plan,  are  oblong  structures.  The 
largest  is  nearly  sixty  feet  in  length,  and  about 
thirty-five  feet  wide.  This  space  is  divided 
into  three  parts :  the  middle,  reaching  across 
the  barn,  from  door  to  door,  is  called  the  floor ; 
being  laid  with  stout  and  smooth  oak  boards, — 
so  smooth,  as  most  boys  know  they  usually 
are,  that  a  good  shde  may  be  had  upon  them ; 
— and  a  bad  one,  if  a  projecting  nail  catch  the 
foot,  and  cause  an  unlucky  fall.  This  part,  on 
which  wagons  enter  to  deposit  their  loads,  pass- 


THE  GRANARIES.  29 

ing  out  at  the  opposite  doors,  is  separated  from 
the  sides,  called  bays^  by  planks  or  rails,  a  few 
feet  high.  In  the  bays  the  corn  is  stacked, 
ready  for  threshing.  A  small  granary  is  inclos- 
ed in  one  corner  of  this  bam. 

As  to  the  principal  granary,  I  remember 
trying  to  shew  my  wisdom  once,  by  saying  that 
it  was  nonsense  to  set  it  upon  legs,  and  make 
men  ascend  with  heavy  sacks  on  step-ladders. 
The  twelve  stone  pillars  on  which  it  stands 
have  each  a  projecting  cap,  like  a  mushroom 
top ;  at  which  I  also  laughed,  as  being  utterly 
useless,  till  my  uncle  told  me  he  thought  /  had 
a  mushroom  top,  not  to  know  that  granaries 
were  so  built  to  keep  a  floor  free  from  wet ; 
and  that  the  pillars  were  capped  to  prevent 
rats  and  mice  from  climbing  into  the  place, 
where  they  would  be  glad  enough  to  obtain 
board  and    lodging.     The   granary   has    sun- 


30  STABLES  AND  HAY-BARNS. 

dry  bins  or  partitions  for  various  grain  and 
seeds. 

The  stables  have  stalls  for  fourteen  horses, 
including  two  of  better  quality  for  our  own 
riding  nags.  I  need  say  nothing  about  racks 
and  hay-lofts,  which  are  equally  common  in 
town  or  country. 

The  hay-barns  are  like  roofs  of  houses  set 
on  very  tall  legs,  with  opening  weather-boards 
extending  part  of  the  way  down,  something 
like  those  of  a  brew-house.  Hay,  stacked 
therein,  of  course  requires  no  thatching;  but  I 
always  think  that  is  the  sweetest  which  stands 
in  the  open  air. 

The  cow-houses  consist  of  a  long  range  of 
sheds,  for  milking  principally,  and  for  nursing 
the  calves.  These  have  stalls,  with  moveable 
frames  of  wood,  made  to  receive  the  head  of 
the  cow,  and  detain  it,  lest  the  animal  should 


cow-houses,  piggeries,  &c.  31 

turn  and  throw  down  the  milk,  or  otherwise 
interrupt  the  process.  Piggeries  and  dove- 
cotes need  not  be  described,  as  they  may  be 
seen  in  other  situations.  The  brew-house  and 
bake-house  join  the  dwelling. 

I  have  ranged  the  farm-yard  with  my  note- 
book in  my  hand,  and  can  find  nothing  more  to 
detain  us  at  present,  unless  it  be  to  notice  some 
large  wooden  frames,  which  are  used  as  cow- 
cribs,  to  contain  winter  fodder  for  cattle. 

In  the  mean  time  I  will  ascend  a  rising 
ground,  whence  the  greater  part  of  the  farm 
can  be  surveyed.  Our  four  hundred  acres  con- 
sist of  about  thirty-five  inclosures,  divided,  as 
is  common  in  this  country,  and  other  wood- 
land parts,  by  ditches  and  hedge-rows,  gar- 
nished with  the  varied  forms  of  stately  timber 
and  flowery  leafy  shrubs.  Of  those  inclosures 
twenty-one  are  arable,  or  plough-land,  amount- 


32  SIZE  OF  GABLE-SIDES  FARM. 

ing  to  about  three  hundred  acres  out  of  the 
four  hundred.  The  rest  is  pasture,  meadow, 
wood,  or  waste,  including  roads  and  paths. 

Most  fields  belonging  to  every  large  farm  in 
the  United  States  have  names,  by  which  they  are 
designated ;  such  as  the  mill-lot^  shop-lot,  &c. 
These  are  generally  derived  from  some  pecu- 
harities  of  shape,  soil,  or  situation.  Some  from 
accidents,  or  incidents  of  life  and  husbandry.  A 
few  are  difficult  to  account  for :  but  as  our  coun- 
try has  been  recently  settled,  the  origin  of  most 
of  our  farm-lot  names  is  well  known.  But  in 
England,  it  is  otherwise.  In  that  country  par- 
ticular lots  are  more  commonly  named  than 
with  us  :  yet  the  occasion  of  their  names  has 
been  extensively  lost.  The  farm  of  Gable-sides, 
some  account  of  which  has  been  given,  pre- 
sents a  curious  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which 


NAMES  OF  THE  FIELDS.  33 

lots  are  named  in  England.  On  this  farm  we 
read  of  Fore  Field  ;  Back  Field  ;  Twenty  Acres; 
Bridge  Field;  Bushy  Croft;  Little  Bushy 
Croft;  Mill  Hoppet ;  Acre  Piece;  Flamsted 
Meads;  Stony  Field;  Path  Field;  Pond  Field; 
Little  Go;  Wood  Side;  Parish  Field;  Brook 
Field;  Topsey  Wood;  Long  Mead ;  Shoulder- 
of 'Mutton  Field ;  Great  Hide  ;  Little  Hide ; 
May  Field;  Pig^s-Mutton  Field ;  J\^ew  Slip; 
Pole-hurst  Side;  Steeple  Land;  Steward^ s 
Corner;  Eleigh  Plot;  Five  Farthing  Close; 
Abbofs  Bury ;  Oak  Field ;  Hatch  Field ;  Lane 
Field;  Peak  End;  Downshire  Bottom. 

These  are  the  well-known  inclosures  and 
plots  of  Gable-sides  Farm.  A  word  of  expla- 
nation with  regard  to  a  term  or  two  in  the  list 
will  be  important.  A  hoppet  is  in  Essex,  and 
some  other  parts  of  England,  a  small  piece  of 
ground,  usually  near  the  house,  elsewhere  call- 
3 


34  EXPLANATION  OF    NAMES. 

ed  a  paddock.  Flamsted  [formed  of  sted,  Saxon 
for  a  place,  and  flam  or  flame,^  indicates  the 
situation  of  some  village  conflagration,  of  which 
the  tradition  still  remains.  Little  Go  is  merely 
a  short  cut,  or  track-way,  into  the  high  road, 
passable  only  in  summer.  Gi^eat  Hide  and 
Little  Hide: — the  word  hide  was  much  used 
formerly  for  a  plot  or  parcel  of  land ;  because 
measuring  thongs  were  cut  from  the  hide  of  a 
bullock,  and  as  much  as  one  skin,  thus  lengthen- 
ed out,  would  inclose,  was  called  '^  a  hide  of  landJ^ 
In  the  days  of  William  the  Conqueror,  this  phrase 
was  used  for  a  hundred  acres.  As  to  Pig^s- 
Miitton  Field,  the  story  is  merely  this,  that  a 
sheep,  many  years  ago,  was  killed  there,  and 
nearly  devoured  by  a  ravenous  sow;  but  I 
rather  doubt  the  tale.  Pole-hurst  Si^e  reminds 
us  of  a  neighbouring  copse,  or  thicket ;  hurst,  or 
rather  htjrst,  being  the  old  Saxon  word  for  a 


EXPLANATIOIN   OF  NAMES.  35 

grove.  Steeple  Land  is  a  roundish  knoll,  of 
some  height,  from  which  spot  the  distant  spire 
of  Danbury  Church  can  be  occasionally  seen. 
Abbofs  Bury  refers  to  some  dwelling,  or  spot, 
connected  with  an  abbot's  history; — bury  mean- 
ing simply  a  residence.  Lastly,  Downshire  Bot- 
tom is  a  low  marshy  field,  near  the  brook.  The 
word  shire,  from  the  Saxon  verb,  which  means 
to  divide,  is  seldom  used  but  for  the  great  parti- 
tions of  the  kingdom  into  counties.  Sometimes, 
however,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Gable-sides 
Farm,  it  has  an  application,  of  smaller  impor- 
tance, to  the  situation  of  a  particular  estate. 


36 


TILLAGE. 


We  find,  that,  even  in  Paradise,  man  had 
employment  appointed  him;  the  object  of 
which  was,  to  aid  nature  in  the  production  of 
food  for  his  subsistence.  It  is  true,  that  the  va- 
rieties of  the  earth's  provision  were  designed  by 
the  Almighty,  without  any  of  our  contrivance, 
and  that  these  have  always  grown  in  a  way 
that  the  understanding  of  man  has  not  been 
able  even  to  comprehend.  But,  ignorant  as  we 
are,  and  vain  as  would  be  our  attempt  to  inter- 
fere with  the  designing  part  of  creation,  we  can 
do  much  by  observation,  and  the  exercise  of 
our  reasoning  and  bodily  powers :  marking  what 
circumstances  of  an  external  kind  have  an 
influence  upon  these  things ; — what  is  favoura- 


TILLAGE.  37 

ble,  and  what  injurious ;  so  that  skill  and  labour 
ma)'  arrange  matters  to  improve  the  desired 
result.  God  entrusts  the  fitful  gales  of  heaven 
to  scatter  innumerable  seeds,  which  are  to 
produce  food  or  shelter  for  myriads  of  inferiour 
animals,  or  to  deck  the  wilderness  with  flowers. 
But  he  employs  a  more  regular  and  important 
agency,  for  the  spread  and  cultivation  of  those 
plants  which  are  especially  destined  for  the 
iupport  of  man,  and  of  those  creatures  which 
subserve  his  wants ; — even  the  mind  and  hand 
of  the  great  consumer,  man  himself.  It  is  not 
presumption  to  say  that  man  assists  the  pur- 
poses of  nature,  any  more  than  to  affirm  that 
the  motions  of  the  elements  may  do  the  same. 
The  Creator  appoints  and  employs  the  instru- 
ment, whatever  it  bCy  whether  an  intelligent  or 
inanimate  machine ;  and.  we  may,  therefore,  as 
truly  admire  his  work  and  wisdom  in  the  fruits 


38  TILLAGE. 

of  human  art  and  labour,  as  in  any  of  those 
natural  wonders,  in  the  formation  of  which  the 
busy  brain  and  finger  of  our  race  have  had 
nothing  at  all  to  do. 

Things  are  so  ordered,  excepting  in  a  very 
few  spots  of  the  globe,  that  nature  performs 
but  little  for  man,  unless  man,  in  his  turn,  per- 
form something  for  nature.  She  gives  an 
abundance  of  materials  and  inducements,  and 
then  says,  "Work!  Work!"  If,  instead  of 
obeying  this  reasonable  injunction,  we  merely 
reach  forth  an  indolent  hand  to  receive  her 
bounties,  she  usually  bestows  them  in  diminish- 
ing and  inferiour  portions,  until,  at  length,  our 
very  necessities  are  unsupplied.  In  few  coun- 
tries, unless,  indeed,  within  the  tropical  climates, 
the  inhabitants  scarcely  exist  a  year  on  the 
mere  donations  of  the  soil  and  of  the  skies.  It  is 
as   true,   that  the   great  mass  of  the  people 


TILLAGE.  39 

througlioiit  the  globe  must  work,  Us  that  they 
must  eat.  They  must  ply  well  their  brains  and 
their  hands,  or  the  table  even  of  the  cottager 
will  lose  its  plainest  viands.  Persons  brought 
up  in  cities,  are  too  apt  to  think  that  grass  and 
corn,  beef  and  mutton,  grow  as  matters  of 
course ;  and  that  the  countryman  has  nothing 
to  do  but  to  cut  and  eat.  I  hope  to  be  able, 
before  I  have  done,  to  shew  my  young  friends 
that  this  is  quite  a  mistake. 

We  will  now  take  a  little  notice  of  those 
processes  of  moving  the  soil,  which  constitute 
the  art  of  tillage. 

The  plough  is,  and  has  been,  the  grand  im- 
plement of  husbandry  for  this  purpose,  amongst 
all  civilized  nations.  The  form  and  power  have 
varied  much,  as  they  now  do  in  different  coun- 
ries;  but  the  intent  and  general  result  have 
>een  the  same  as  far  back  as  the  ancient  coins 


40  THE  PLOUGH. 

of  Greece  and  Rome  take  us,  many  of  which 
represent  this  noted  agricultural  machine, 
drawn  by  cattle  and  guided  by  a  man,  as  now. 


We  cannot  go  farther  into  the  history  of  the 
plough  at  present.  As  it  was  found,  that  the 
more  the  soil  is  loosened,  stirred,  and  broken, 
the  greater  are  its  powers  of  production ;  it 
became  needfv^   ^o  contrive   some   means  of 


THE  PLOUGH.        *  41 

performing  this  operation  on  a  large  scale,  in 
the  most  expeditious  and  successful  manner. 
Spade  husbandry,  as  it  is  cpJled,  does  as  well, 
perhaps  better,  where  it  can  be  accomplished ; 
but  millions  of  acres  cannot  thus  be  tilled. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  move  as  much  soil  in 
as  little  time  as  possible,  the  plough  was  con- 
structed. It  consists  of  many  parts;  as  the 
coulter  J  the  share  and  breast^  the  handles^  rail, 
chains,  &lc.  The  ploughshare  and  breast, 
which  are  the  principal  acting  parts  in  turning 
over  the  soil,  consist  of  a  broad  and  smooth 
surface  of  iron,  having  a  sharp  and  taper  toe, 
which  enters,  like  a  wedge,  and**  heaves  the 
earth  off  towards  the  right  side.  The  coulter 
is  a  sort  of  knife,  which  is  placed  before  the 
share,  to  cut  the  ground  and  detach  the  por- 
tion ready  for  it  there.  The  engraving  repre- 
sents one  of  the  common  sort. 
D 


42  '    THE  PLOUGHMAN. 

The  terms  '^ ploughman^^  and  '' clod-hopper^^ 
are  used  in  a  sneering  and  vulgar  way,  by 
many  who  do  not  possess  nearly  the  skill  and 
knowledge  of  the  humble  peasant  who  guides 
this  important  machine.  In  the  first  place,  the 
parts  of  it  are  by  him  adjusted  to  a  very  great 
nicety,  with  screws,  hooks,  and  wedges,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  furrow  required; — and 
then  the  direction  of  this  in  straight  and  pa- 
rallel courses ;  the  management,  by  the  voice, 
of  the  horses — although  a  boy  helps  to  guide 
them  ;  the  turning  and  returning  correctly;  and 
the  arranging  of  the  furrows  in  slightly  rising 
curves,  or  Idnds^  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
to  lay  them  dry,  with  water-courses  between; 
— all  these  duties  require  the  ploughman  to 
have  a  correct  eye,  a  strong  and  steady  hand, 
and -a  clear  head  for  his  business — which 
qualifications    make    a    man    of   a    sort    that 


THE  PLOUGHMAN.  43 

none  but  extremely  ignorant  persons  can  de- 
spise. 

Ploughing  is  often  repeated,  in  various  way3 
before  the  land  is  sufficiently  stirred  and  broken 
to  make  a  good  tilth.  For  this  purpose,  thr 
field  is,  sometimes,  crossed  and  rr  "TOSsed,  in 
different  directions ;  but  if  not,  the  ends  of  the 
furrows  must  be  made  good  by  a  few  cross 
furrows,  called  head-lands.  But,  after  all  the 
plough  can  do,  the  clods  are  still  by  far  too 
rough  and  large  to  receive  the  seer^  until 
another  engine  has  been  employed. 


44 


THE   HARROW. 


This  is  the  Harrow,  a  strong  and  heavy 
frame  of  wood,  having  a  number  of  iron  spikes 
fixed  in  it,  to  form  a  kind  of  rake  for  the  sur- 
face. In  the  United  States,  the  wedge  harrow 
is  chiefly  used.  It  is  so  called  from  its  being 
shaped  much  like  a  wedge.  In  England,  the 
square  harrow,  like  that  represented  in  the  cut, 
IS  mostly  used.  The  latter  are  now  not  unfre- 
quent  among  us.    In  this  country,  we  generally 


MANURE.  45- 

use  but  one,  which  is  drawn  by  oxen ;  but  in 
England  three  or  four  of  these  are  frequently 
chained  together,  and  drawn  by  two  of  more 
horses  ;  they  produce  a  great  effect  in  cutting, 
crumbling,  and  levelling  the  clods,  which  are 
also,  in  some  cases,  further  broken  down  by 
the  action  of  a  ponderous  wooden  roller. 

But  the  utmost  skill  in  the  performance  of 
these  mechanical  processes  will  not  ensure  a 
good  return,  unless  the  master's  management 
be  also  good.  As  the  husbandman  needs  food 
and  rest,  so  does  the  soil,  where  the  kind  of 
produce  called  a  crop  is  expected.  The  food 
of  land  is  Manure  ;  its  rest  is  laying  it  down 
either  for  feeding,  or  a  Fallow. 

Manure  consists  of  various  animal,  vegetable, 
and  mineral  substances,  selected  according  to 
the  soil  and  the  intended  crop.  With  respect 
to  animals,  there  is  no  part  of  them  which  does 


46  MANURE. 

not,  by  dissolution,  become  a  most  useful  ingre- 
dient for  the  restoration  of  an  exhausted  soil- 
Besides,  therefore,  the  commonest  kind  of 
manure,  any  refuse  of  the  butcher  and  the 
fishmonger,  the  soap-maker  and  the  sugar- 
boiler,  is  acceptable  to  the  farmer; — who,  of 
course,  has  in  this  respect  an  advantage,  if  at 
no  great  distance  from  places  where  these  are 
to  be  procured. 

Lime,  salt,  burnt  earth,  sand  and  shells,  soap- 
ashes,  and  I  know  not  how  many  other  things, 
with  decayed  vegetable  matter,  are  applied  to 
the  earth,  as  a  sort  of  re-payment,  for  which, 
however,  she  always  accounts  with  high  interest. 
Meadows  pay  well  for  the  best  manure,  but  will 
be  mended  much,  even  by  more  earth  sprinkled 
on  the  sward. 

There  are  many  'other  things  essential  to 
good  tillage,  which  the  experienced  and  intelli- 


WEEDING  AND   LAND-DITCHING.  47 

gent  farmer  attends  to,  as  he  sees  occasion  ^  - 
shall  mention  only  weeding^  or  cleaning  the  land, 
and  land- ditching.  The  best  opportunity  for 
getting  the  field  clear  of  weeds,  roots,  and  other 
such  matters,  is  afforded  by  the  fallow.  The 
ground  is  then  at  liberty  to  admit  of  continued 
ploughings ;  and  of  thistle  and  dock-irons,  or 
bush-hooks,  to  eradicate  those  troublesome  in- 
truders, for  which  they  are  intended ;  and,  if 
necessary,  of  the  shovel  and  mattock,  to  remove 
suekers  and  roots  of  trees.  Weeding,  how- 
ever, goes  on  to  a  great  extent  with  the  hoe 
and  other  instruments,  as  we  have  seen,  when 
the  crops  are  up. 

Land-ditching,  or  draining  on  certain  humid 
soils,  is  almost  as  necessary  as  any  other  act  of 
husbandry ;  indeed,  without  this,  in  many  cases, 
all  other  tillage  would  be  labour  in  vain.  Where 
water  hangs  in  the  land,  on  or  near  the  surface, 


48  DRAINING  LAND. 

very  long  together,  it  checks  the  vegetation  of 
farming  crops,  so  as  to  compel  the  husbandman 
to  adopt  a  remedy.  This  ^remedy  consists  in 
draining.  Drains  are  of  various  kinds.  In  the 
United  States  we  use  chiefly  open  drains.  But 
in  England,  where  the  farmers  are  pecuharly 
nice,  and  wish  to  make  the  most  of  the  land, 
both  as  to  appearance  and  produce,  they  em- 
ploy covered  drains,  or  gutters,  sometimes  call- 
ed in  that  country  thoroughs.  These  are 
generally  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  indhes 
>n  depth,  thrown  across  the  land  in  such  direc- 
tions as  shall  best  suit  the  discharge  of  the 
water  to  the  ditches  at  the  borders  of  the  field. 
When  this  is  done,  bushes  are  thrust  in,  and  on 
them  a  close  covering  of  straw  is  placed.  On 
this  the  earth  may  be  securely  laid.  A  hollow, 
sufficient  for  the  water-passage,  is  thereby  ob- 
tained, and  no  indications  of  the  work  are  visi- 


DRAINING  LAND.  49 

ble  above,  except  the  superiour  fertility  of  the 
spot,  which,  indeed,  is  sometimes  distinctly  to 
be  traced  in  lines  corresponding  to  the  drains 
beneath.  By  this  means  the  beauty  of  the 
field  is  preserved,  besides  that  no  land  is 
wasted. 

Meadows  and  pasture  land  do  not  of  course 
require,  or  admit,  of  the  labour  of  arable  fields. 
Nevertheless,  they  need  attention ;  and  if  the 
land  be  at  all  good,  they  fully  repay  it.  Grass 
lands,  like  others,  will,  in  a  short  time,  be  over- 
run with  weeds  and  suckers  from  trees,  if 
neglected.  Instruments  are  invented,  there- 
fore, as  we  have  seen,  to  delve  these  out ;  and 
the  more  diligently  they  are  used  the  better ; 
for  even  the  grass  is  rendered  more  vigorous 
by  the  movement  of  the  soil  thus  occasioned. 
The  herbage  also  needs  renewal  sometimes,  by 
having  fresh  hay-seeds,  &c.  scattered  over  it. 
4  E 


50  BUSH-HARROWING. 

I  have  said  that  meadows  want  good  manur- 
ing: this  is  usually  done  in.  frosty  weather, 
when  the  heavy  cart  does  not  cut  the  sward. 
After  this  supply  has  been  spread  by  the  fork, 
the  stones,  shells,  and  other  rubbish,  which 
may  have  been  brought  on,  are  carefully  picked 
up  and  removed.  Soon  after,  the  field  should 
be  bush-harrowed^  with  a  machine  formed  of 
bundles  of  thorny  shrubs,  attached  to  a  heavy 
wooden  frame,  which,  being  drawn  up  and 
down  by  a  horse,  combs  and  scratches  the 
manure  and  loose  earth  about.  Then  comes 
the  roller — a  huge  cylinder  of  wood,  made  to 
turn  and  support  a  timber  frame  of  great 
weight,  which  sometimes  is  further  increased 
by  laying  upon  it  a  heavy  piece  of  timber,  a 
wagon-wheel,  or  some  such  ponderous  body. 
This  machine  presses  the  earth  and  roots  close, 
and   levels  many  little  hillocks   which  would 


HEDGING  AWD  DITCHING.  51 

otherwise  encounter  the  mower's  scythe,  and 
take  off  its  edge. 

During  the  winter  season,  farmers  in  the 
United  States  emplov  themselves  in  a  variety 
of  useful  ways,  such  as  menci'mg  broken  imple- 
ments ;  threshing  and  carrying  their  produce  to 
market ;  and  m  laymg  in  a  sufficient  stock  of 
wood,  for  the  year.  This  generally  occupies 
much  time,  and  is  among  the  most  laborious 
services  to  which  they  are  called. 

In  England  the  farmers  have  the  advantage 
in  being  able  to  carry  on  a  still  greater  variety 
of  operations,  by  reason  of  the  superiour  mild- 
ness of  the  climate.  They  repair  hedges  and 
ditches,  and  clear  lands  cf  stumps,  roots,  and 
the  like ;  wh'ch  wo  are  prevented  doiag  unless 
at  particular  seasons. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  hedges  of  "England.  In 
this  country  we  know  little  of  this  mode  of  en- 


52  HEDGING  AND  DITCHING. 

closing  our  fields — our  method  being  either 
with  rails  or  stone.  But  in  that  country  they 
make  extensive  use  of  he^dges  and  ditches. 
Some  account  of  this  mode  of  dividing  enclo- 
sures in  that  country  will  be  interesting  and 
instructive. 

Several  different  shrubs  and  trees  are  made 
use  of  for  hedges,  such  as  the  white-thorn, 
black-thorn,  furze,  holly,  &lc.  But  the  white- 
thorn is  the  most  proper  for  fences,  as  it  grows 
quickly,  is  very  durable,  and  makes  a  handsome 
appearance.  In  Germany,  the  farmers  make 
use  of  a  tree  called  the  horn-beam.  In  the 
United  States  some  attempts  have  been  made 
to  form  hedges.  Mr.  Quincy,  near  Boston, 
several  years  since,  set  out  ten  thousand  of  the 
American  Hedge-Thorn,  which  he  obtained 
from  Virginia.  But  they  have  not  flourished 
well,  nor  are  they  found  so  well  adapted  to  the 


HEDGING  AND  DITCHING  53 

purpose  of  hedges,  as  the  English  White-Thorn, 
of  which  I  have  spoken. 

The  manner  of  forming  a  hedge  and  ditch  by 
the  English  farmer  is  as  follows: — First,  the 
ground  is  carefully  marked  out,  and  a  line 
stretched  along  it,  to  guide  the  digger.  Next, 
he  pares  off  the  turf,  if  any,  and  rolls  it  on  one 
side.  Then  he  proceeds  to  remove  the  earth, 
to  the  width,  perhaps,  of  about  five  feet  at  top, 
and  slopes  the  sides  down  to  the  depth,  it  may 
be,  of  three  feet,  with  a  bottom  of  one  foot 
wide,  throwing  the  soil  up  on  one  side,  ready 
to  be  formed  into  the  bank.  If  the  purpose  be 
merely  to  divide  land  occupied  by  the  same 
person,  it  may  not  signify  on  which  side  the 
embankment  is  made.  But  if  it  is  to  be  a  par- 
tition between,  say  my  estate  and  my  neigh- 
bour's, I  must  not,  of  course,  intrude  upon  his 
ground  at  all,  either  for  hedge  or  ditch.    The 


54  HEDGING  AND   DITCHING. 

boundary  line  therefore  between  us,  I  must 
make  the  further  side  of  my  ditch ;  the  earth  I 
must  lay  on  my  own  ground ;  so  that  hedge  and 
ditch  both  belong  to  me. 

Good  workmanship  is  very  conspicuous  in 
hedging  and  ditching  performed  by  a  competent 
hand.  The  sides,  edges,  and  bottom,  are  ex- 
pected to  be  as  true  to  their  proper  form  as  if 
wrought  in  a  brick-mould.  If  they  are  not  so, 
the  water  hangs,  where  it  ought  to  run,  the 
bank  crumbles  down,  and  the  employer  very 
justly  complains.  The  bank  is  plantec  with 
young  hedge-shrubs,  or  sown  with  furze  or 
broom,  or  else  furnished  with  a  dead  fence  of 
bushes  stuck  in  and  wattled  together. 

Old  hedges  are  much  improved  by  thinning, 
topping,  and  laying.  A  quantity  of  the  old 
wood  is  taken  out.  The  younger  branches  are 
then  chopped  nearly  off,  close  to  the  root,  taking 


hedg:.%g  and  r  tching.  55 

care  always  to  leave  a  small  width  of  the  living 
bark.  The  branches  are  then  laid  down  almost 
horizontally,  and  tied  to  stakes,  or  to  each  other. 
The  consequence  is,  those  branches ^  instead  of 
growing,  as  before,  to  an  useless  height  and 
scanty  at  bottom,  send  forth  a  multitude  of 
*;noots,  which  thicken  the  lower  part  of  the 
hedge;  nor  does  the  wound  inflicted  by  the 
nedge-hook  make  any  material  difference  in  the 
growth,  after  the  first  season. 

The  hedges  which  we  have  thus  described, 
Avhen  flourishing,  present  a  beautiful  appearance, 
and  add  much  to  the  rural  aspect  of  the  coun- 
try. They  are  generally  accompanied  by  a 
ditch,  the  hedge  alone,  especially  when  young, 
being  insuflficient  to  -arn  cattle.  In  the  fox- 
chase,  or  in  deer  hunting,  of  which  the  English 
are  remarkably  fond,  it  often  becomes  necessary 
to  leap  these  hedges  and  ditches     The  hcrses 


56  HEDGING    .  ND  DITCHING. 

called  "hunters"  are  trained  to  this  service,  and 
often  become  surprisingly  skilful  in  passing 
them.  Yet,  it  is  always  accompanied  with 
danger  both  to  rider  and  horse,  and  sad  and 
even  fatal  accidents  sometimes  occur.  A  plea- 
sant allusion  is  made  to  this  kind  of  leap  in  the 
celebrated  story  of  Monsieur  Tonson,  which  is 
no  doubt  quite  familiar  to  most  of  Cr^r  little 
readers. 

"  If  e'er  a  pleasant  mischief  sprung  to  view, 
At  once  o'er  hedge  and  ditch  away  he  flew, 
Nor  left  the  game  till  he  had  ran  it  down." 

The  winter,  in  England,  is  a  convenient  time 
also  to  mend  roads,  public  and  private ;  but  in 
the  United  States  this  is  generally  done  in  the 
summer  and  autumn.  Both  in  this  country  and 
that,  the  farmer  is  allowed,  instead  of  pay  .'in  g 
money  for  that  purpose,  to  employ  his:    ''am  i  n  1 


DESTRUCTION  OF  VERMIN.  57 

carts  for  the  repair  of  those  roads  in  his  parish 
which  are  not  provided  for  by  toll-gates. 

Winter,  though  not  the  season,  generally,  for 
military  enterprise,  is  not  a  bad  time  for  the 
farmer  to  proceed  against  very  many  of  his 
enemies,  with  any  advantages  of  arms,  engines, 
and  generalship,  which  he  may  possess.  The 
enemies  which  I  now  refer  to,  are  rats,  mice, 
and  weasels ;  many  kinds  of  birds  and  insects ; 
and  last,  but  not  least  in  mischievous  impor- 
tance, many  tribes  of  four-footed  game !  With 
regard  to  all  these,  no  qualification  for  killing 
them  is  needful,  but  the  power  of  catching  or 
finding  them;  and  for  this  purpose,  various 
schemes  and  arts,  and  clever  ones  too,  are 
made  use  of.  In  the  United  States  much  less 
attention  is  paid  to  the  destruction  of  such  crea- 
tures as  prey  upon  and  injure  our  crops,  than 
In  England.    In  this  latter  country  rat-catching 


58  RAT  AND  MOLE  CATCHING. 

and  mole-catching  are  professions  by  them- 
selves, which  are  useful  to  the  community  as 
many  of  higher  reputation.  As  moles  burrow 
and  pass  in  long  subterranean  passages,  but 
near  the  surface,  the  catcher  inserts,  in  the  track- 
way of  the  little  miner,  a  spring  trap,  the  catch 
of  which  is  attached  to  a  strong  stick,  thrust  in 
the  ground,  and  bent  down  with  force,  so  as  to 
rise  and  pull  violently  a  string  to  which  the 
under-ground  snare  is  attached.  The  animal  in 
passing,  is  thus  noosed  and  choked  without  the 
possibility  of  escape.  The  mole-catcher  has 
two-pence  or  three-pence  a-piece  for  every 
mole  he  destroys. 

Rats  and  mice  are  destroyed  in  various  ways, 
and  to  a  great  extent,  by  dogs,  and  cats,  and 
owls,  which  are  more  useful  in  a  farm -yard,  than 
many  persons  who  are  paid  in  money  to  do 
their  work.    Otherwise  they  are  taken  by  traps 


RAT  AND  MOLE  CATCHING.  59 

and  snares,  or  destroyed  by  poison.  They  are, 
however,  rarely  got  rid  of  entirely,  when  even 
all  these  methods  are  continually  adopted.  The 
other  animals  of  the  mischievous  sorts  are  de- 
stroyed by  the  gun,  when  seen. 


GO 


PRODUCE   OF   THE   FARM. 

We  have  taken  a  little  notice  of  the  farm^ 
and  the  husbandman's  needful  labours  upon 
it,  befoKe  he  can  enjoy  the  fruits.  Let  us 
now  see  what  those  products  are;  how  he 
gathers  them  in,  and  disposes  of  them  for  his 
benefit. 

It  is  evident  that  these  things  consist  of 
varieties  of  the  vegetable  or  animal  kingdoms 
of  nature.  We  will  attend  to  vegetables  first, 
for  they  were  man's  first  food,  and  occupied  his 
earliest  agricultural  thoughts. 

The  vegetables  chiefly  cultivated  in  the 
United  States,  for  the  food  or  use  of  man, 
are  of  three  principal  kinds: — grain,  or  seeds  ; 


PRODUCE  OF  THE  FARM.  61 

roots ;  and  the  herbs  whose  substance  chiefly  is 
used  for  food  or  manufacture. 

In  the  first  class,  I  include  the  principal  spe- 
cies of  grain  or  corn,  as  the  English  people 
call  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  some  other  seeds : 
as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  peas,  beans,  tares, 
&c.  In  the  second  division,  we  have  potatoes? 
turnips,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  mangel-wurtzel. 
In  the  third  class,  we  must  put  the  species  of 
grass,  clover,  and  other  pasture  plants ;  toge- 
ther with  hops,  hemp,  flax,  teasels,  &c. 

Now  I  do  not  pretend  to  say  that  my  list,  or 
arrangement,  will  include,  by  any  means,  all 
the  plants  which  may  be  found  on  farm  lands : 
indeed  I  could  easily  add  many  others  which  I 
can  call  to  mind;  but  they  are  not  grown  in 
quantity,  or  for  purposes  of  nearly  equal  im- 
portance with  those  I   have  named;  and  are, 


62  WHEAT. 

perhaps,  in  many  cases,  only  sown  by  way  of 
experiment. 

Neither  must  it  be  thought  that  all  the  plants 
and  products  which  I  have  named  and  describ- 
ed, are  grown  on  every  farm.  Some  lands 
grow  no  barley,  potatoes,  or  turnips;  and  I 
scarcely  ever  knew  a  farmer  who  attempted  aL 
in  one  season. 

Wheat. — This,  to  the  civilized  world  at 
least,  is  the  first,  in  importance  and  value,  of  all 
grain.  There  are  several  sorts ;  but  I  do  not 
see  that  I  have  room  and  opportunity  to  distin- 
guish them  much  in  this  little  book.  So  I  shall 
only  say,  that  we  farmers  talk  chiefly  of  white, 
red,  and  spring  wheat. 

I  dare  say  if  man  had  been  employed  to 
contrive  or  invent  a  seed,  or  fruit,  for  the  chief 
support  of  his  race,  he  would  have  made  it 


WHEAT. 


b[i 


nearer  in  size  to  a  quartern  loaf,  than  is  the 
diminutive  grain  of  corn,  which  Nature  has 
thought  the  best  form  and  bulk  for  the  purpose. 


SPRING  WHEAT. 


COMMON  WHEAT. 


Of  this  kernel,  or  corn,  a  considerable  part  is 
husk,  which  adheres  so  closely,  that  it  is 
needful  to  bruise  the  whole  together,  and  sift 


64  *  WHEAT. 

out  the  meal,  to  separate  it.  Yet  there  is 
•'bread  enough,  and  to  spare,"  as  far  as  quan- 
tity  is  concerned,  wherever  the  wickedness, 
the  folly,  or  the  indolence  of  man,  does  not 
defeat  or  check  the  powers  of  nature,  and  of 
his  own  skill  and  industry.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  and  one  which  ought  to  impress  us  with 
sentiments  of  admiration  and  gratitude  towards 
the  great  and  good  Author  of  Nature,  that 
wheat,  the  best  of  grain,  will  grow  and  thrive 
in  almost  any  chmate  where  vegetables  consti- 
tute the  food  of  man.  From  the  equator  to 
the  very  borders  of  the  polar  regions,  this  con- 
stant friend  endures  the  scorching  beams,  or 
braves  the  northern  blasts,  and  comes,  a  golden 
gift,  alike  to  the  sun-burnt  fainting  African,  and 
the  snow-wrapt  Muscovite.  Seeing  that  it 
bears  such  extremes  of  climate,  spreading  from 
zone  to  zone  on  the  globe,  it  is  not  wonderful 


SOWING    WHEAT.  65 

that  it  sustains  better  than  any  other  corn  the 
fticlemencies  of  our  own  changeful  skies,  and 
the  disadvantages  of  our  most  unfavourable 
seasons.  Wheat  may  be  compared  to  a  very 
sensible  person,  who  likes  and  enjoys  good 
things  as  well  as  any  one,  but  can  put  up  with 
bad  circumstances  better  than  most  other  per- 
sons. It  thrives  in  a  temperate  climate,  a  fine 
shining  season,  a  rich  soil,  and  under  good 
management ;  yet,  when  all  these  are  reversed, 
so  that  other  things  perish,  this  hardy  plant  will 
Uve,  produce  its  seed,  and  supply,  in  some 
measure,  the  table  of  even  the  least  worthy 
husbandman. 

Wheat,  for  the  main  crops,  is  always  sown  in 
the  autumn,  and  generally  on  land  which  has 
been  a  fallow  the  preceding  season,  or  which 
has  produced  some  different  crop,  and  been 
well  manured.  It  was  the  general  practice  of 
5  F 


66 


SOWING  WHEAT. 


the  ancients,  and  has  been  of  the  moderns,  to 
steep  the  seed  in  hquors  of  a  briny  kind,  before 
sowing ;  some,  hoWever,  think  that  water  alone 


BUCK  WHEAT. 


is  just  as  good ;  the  benefit  being  rather,  by  the 
means  of  a  fluid,  to  separate  faulty  seeds,  which 
swun  at  the  top,  and  are  easily  skimmed  off, 


SOWING  WHEAT.  67 

than  to  impart  additional  powers  of  growth. 
The  land  having  been  prepared  by  the  plough 
and  harrow,  in  the  manner  before  explained, 
the  seed  is  to  be  sown.  There  are  three  prin- 
cipal methods  of  performing  this  operation: — 
namely,  by  broadcast,  by  dibbing,  or  by  the 
drill.  The  first  is  no  doubt  the  most  ancient 
way;  and  considerable  skill  is  required  from, 
and  practised  by,  the  husbandman,  in  perform- 
ing this  part  of  his  duty.  His  w^alk,  his  throw, 
his  grasp,  must  each  be  accurately  timed  and 
measured,  or  his  ground  and  seed  would  be 
greatly  wasted,  by  having  some  spaces  scarcely 
supplied,  and  others  so  overdone,  that  the  plant 
would  fail  for  want  of  room.  He  steps  along 
the  furrows  with  great  regularity,  and  flings  at 
such  intervals,  and  in  such  quantities,  as  will 
ensure  the  designed  allowance,  which  varies  a 
little  according  to  circumstances, — about  two 


68  SOWING  WHEAT. 

bushels  to  the  acre  is  usual.  It  is  afterwards 
harrowed  in,  and  sometimes  even  ploughed; 
and  in  a  few  days  or  weeks  the  tiny  tender 
blade  appears,  which  has  to  endure  the  utmost 
rigour  of  our  winter  season. 

Nothing  but  experience  could  persuade  us 
that  this  is  the  best  way  to  ensure  the  ensuing 
harvest.  Wheat  of  a  certain  sort  is,  indeed, 
sown  in  the  spring ;  but  this  is  apt  to  produce 
straw,  rather  than  corn.  The  previous  growth 
of  the  root  is  needful,  to  sustain  the  productive 
ears.  The  slender  and  blackened  appearance 
of  the  blade  in  winter  does  not  much  discou- 
rage the  farmer.  The  spring  will  impart  strength 
and  freshness  to  the  blade,  unless  the  roots,  by 
being  thrown  from  the  earth  by  the  frost,  should 
become,  as  the  farmers  term  it,  "  winter  killed." 
To  prevent  this,  a  heavy  roll  should  be  applied 
in  the  spring,  which  serves  to  settle  the  roots, 


SOWING  WITH  THE  DRILL.  69 

and  enables  them  to  obtain  sufficient  and  timely 
aliment. 

Wheat  that  is  dibbed,  or  dibbled,  is  dropped, 
two  or  three  kernels  at  a  time,  into  holes, 
made  by  a  man  with  a  pointed  instrument  in 
the  shape  of  a  T.  This  he  holds  by  the  cross 
piece,  and  thrusts  the  longer  leg,  w^hich  is 
pointed  with  iron,  into  the  ground,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  a  few  inches,  with  considerable  quick- 
ness as  he  w^alks.  Children  usually  follow, 
and  drop  the  seed  into  the  holes  which  he 
makes.  This  mode  of  sowing  wheat  is  un- 
known in  the  United  States,  but  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  England. 

The  drill  is  too  complex  a  machine  to  be  ac- 
curately described,  or  understood  here.  It  is  a 
sort  of  box,  containing  the  wheat,  borne  on  two 
ivheels,  and  drawn  by  horses.    The  wheels,  as 


70  BARLEY. 

they  go  round,  give  motion  to  a  sort  of  cylinder 
within  the  box,  in  which  are  fixed  instruments, 
like  tea-spoons,  at  proper  distances.  Under- 
neath are  cutting  irons,  which  form  grooves,  or 
drills,  to  receive  the  seed,  as  it  is  delivered 
from  the  spoons ;  and  the  process  is  thus 
completed  with  mechanical  precision,  such  as 
pleases  the  eye,  when  the  plant  issues  from  the 
soil.  However,  the  advantages  of  this  contri- 
vance, on  the  whole,  are  not  so  great,  but  that 
most  of  the  English  farmers  proceed  by  the  old 
method  still.  We  must  now  leave  the  wheat- 
field  for  a  season. 

Barley  is  a  grain  and  ear  more  nearly  re- 
sembung  wheat  than  any  other  grain.  The 
character  by  which  any  may  distinguish  it,  is 
the  brush,  or  beard,  consisting  of  long  slender 


BARLEY.  71 

spikes,  or  needles,  which  proceed  from  each 
kernel,  and  extend  considerably  beyond  the 
ear.    The  principal  use  of  barley  is  for  making 


WINTER  BARLEY.  SPRING  BARLEY. 

beer;  in  order  for  Which,  it  first  undergoes  a 
process,  called  malting.    It  is  also  ground  for 


72  OATS. 

bread  in  some  countries ;  and  is  used  also  a.:J 
food  for  hogs.  It  has,  besides,  many  medici- 
nal virtues.  This  grain  is  always  sown  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  in  dry  weather.  Some  of 
the  early  sorts  are  ready  in  nine  or  ten  weeks. 
It  is  sometimes  sown  at  two  operations,  and 
afterwards  rolled,  to  press  the  earth  close,  and 
level  it  for  the  mower.  It  should  be  rolled 
when  it  has  been  up  two  or  three  weeks,  which 
causes  the  plant  to  produce  a  greater  number 
of  stems. 

Oats.- — This  is  a  beautiful  variety  of  the 
corn  tribe.  The  grain  remains  not  in  its  case 
or  ear,  as  in  the  former  sorts,  but,  starting 
thence,  hangs  in  single  kernels,  depending  from 
the  stalk,  having  a  very  light  and  graceful  ap- 
pearance.   The  minute  seeds  of  various  grasses 


OATS. 


73 


are  thus  arranged,  and  form  some  of  the  most 
elegant  of  vegetable  structures.    The  principal 


OATS. 


variety  of  oats  cultivated  m  the  United  States 

is  the  while  kind.    In  England  they  have  in 
G 


74 


RYE. 


addition  a  black  kind.  White  oats  are  most 
common  near  London,  and  black  oats  in  the 
north.  Dr.  Johnson,  who  bore  no  kindly  feeling 
towards  Scotchmen  and  their  country,  said,  in 
the  first  editions  of  his  Dictionary,  that  oats  were 
"  food  for  horses  in  England,  and  men  in  Scot- 
land." 

I  have  said  that  wheat  will  grow  almost  any 
where;  but  there  are  many  places  where  it 
does  not  thrive^  and  yet  oats  will  do  very  well. 
In  poor  lands  and  wet  seasons,  these  take  less 
harm  than  other  corn;  and  good  oats  may 
make  even  better  bread  than  bad  wheat.  They 
are  sown  here  sometimes  in  March,  but  gene- 
rally not  till  April. 

Rye  is  an  inferiour  grain,  the  ear  of  which 
somewhat  resembles    that  of   barley.      It  is, 


R  fZ. 


75 


however,  much  used  for  bread,  especially  in 
the  New-England  states.  In  England,  it  is 
sown  chiefly  as  pasture  food  for  cattle.    Rye, 


RYE. 


of  a  bad  quality,  has,  it  is  said,  proved  poison- 
ous to  its  consumers,  in  some  seasons. 


76 


PULSE,  CROPS,  &c. 

These  are  so  called,  because  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  gathered  by  pulling^  not  by  mow- 
ing or  reaping;  but,  considered  as  farming 
produce,  the  meaning  does  not,  in  that  respect, 
apply. 

The  chief  pulse  crops  are  peas  and  beans. 
These  grow  in  pods. 

Of  Peas  we  have  many  varieties,  both  early 
and  late.  They  are  extensively  cultivated  for 
the  table,  and  are  considered  a  rich  and  not 
unhealthful  food.  In  the  state  of  Vermont  and 
In  some  of  the  western  states,  great  quantities 
are  raised  as  food  for  horses  and  swine.    They 


PEAS  AND  BEANS. 


77 


also  find  their  way  into  market,  and  are  sold 
for  soup  and  other  table  requisites.  These 
last  are  generally  called  field-peas. 


FIELD-PEA. 


Field-Beans  in  England,  are  chiefly  raised 
for  horses.  In  that  country,  the  kind  raised  is 
smaller  and  darker  coloured  than  the  garden 


78 


TARES. 


sorts.  In  the  United  States,  especially  in  New- 
England,  the  white  kind  is  most  generally 
approved,  and  furnishes  an  excellent  food  for 
the  table.  Beans  often  yield  a  good  crop,  even 
on  poor,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soil.  With  proper 
care  this  crop  is  as  valuable  as  a  wheat  crop. 


TARE. 


In  England  they  raise  another  sort  of  j4iibe 
called  Tares,  or  Vetches,  which  are  a  small 


cow   CABBAGES.  79 

sort  of  beans ;  grown  not  for  the  sake  of  the 
seed,  but  for  the  green  herb,  as  cattle  food. 
They  are  generally  sowed  early  enough  to 
allow  of  being  fed  off,  or  cut,  so  as  to  make 
room  for  a  crop  of  turnips  afterwards;  or,  if 
the  land  is  to  be  prepared  for  a  wheat  crop, 
they  are  ploughed  in  as  manure. 

Cow  Cabbages,  called  also  drum-heads^  are 
grown  on  some  farms  in  England  to  a  conside- 
rable extent,  and  to  a  very  large  size.  We 
know  Uttle  about  them  in  this  country  for  cattle. 
The  original  stock,  from  which  the  cultivated 
cabbage  is  derived,  and  from  which  also 
colewort,  borecole,  cauliflowers,  and  brocoli, 
have  been  obtained,  grows  on  cliffs  by  the  sea- 
side, in  the  counties  of  Kent,  Cornwall,  York- 
shire, and  in  Wales.  In  the  wild  state,  we 
should  scarcely  know  this  plant  as  a  cabbage  ; 


80 


MUSTARD  SEED. 


the  leaves  being  few  and  extended,  and 
destitute  of  the  heart  wnicn  is  obtained  by 
culture. 


MUSTARD. 


Mustard. — Of  this  plant  there  are  two 
species,  the  black  and  the  white ;  both  natives 
of  Great  Britain.    The  wliite  mustard  is  seldom 


MUSTARD.  81 

cultivated  in  the  United  States,  but  is  common 
in  parts  of  England,  where  the  plant  is  used  as 
a  salad.  The  seed  is  much  used  in  its  whole  or 
unbroken  state,  as  a  medicine.  In  Spain,  and 
some  other  countries  of  Europe,  it  is  ground 
and  used  on  the  table,  and  is  preferred,  on 
account  of  its  giving  a  whiter  and  milder  flour, 
to  the  seed  of  the  black. 

Black  mustard  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  fields 
for  the  mill,  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is 
extensively  raised  botl^  in  the  United  States  and 
in  England,  but  chiefly  in  small  patches.  It  is 
sowed  either  in  drills  or  broad-cast.  The  time 
of  sowing  is  March  or  April,  and  the  crop  is 
gathered  in  July  or  August. 

Vegetables  in  less  demand  than  those  I  have 

named,  or  which  are  grown  for  the  purposes  of 

medicine  or  manufactures,  do  not  form  usual 

crops   on  farms  in   general;    such  as  saffi-on, 

6 


82 


SAFFRON. 


madder,  coriander,  caraway,  and  some  others. 
Besides  these,  there  are  plants  of  vast  impor- 
tance for  their  respective  uses,  which  are  not  to 
be  met  with  hke  corn  and  hay ;  as  hops,  hemp, 
flax,  and  teasels.  I  shall  notice  these  in  their  place. 


SAFFRON. 


Saffron  is  a  kind  of  crocus :  a  preparation 
of  which  is  used  in  medicine,  and  in  the  art  of 


MADDER.  83 

*• 

dyeing.  In  Cambridgeshire,  in  England,  near 
the  borders  of  Essex,  this  plant  has  long  been 
cultivated  to  a  great  extent.  Saffron  Walden 
derives  its  name  from  this  product  of  its 
vicinity.  As  soon  as  the  flowers  of  this  plant 
appear,  they  are  gathered  by  hand,  in  the 
morning,  before  they  open;  a  part  of  the 
flower  is  afterwards  picked  out;  this  being 
subjected  to  heat  and  pressure,  forms  a  cake, 
which  is  the  drug  that  bears  the  name.  Saf- 
fron in  small  quantities  is  raised  by  almost 
every  family  in  New-England,  and  is  used  in 
its  unprepared  state  in  various  complaints.  It 
is  only  for  the  sake  of  convenience  that  it  is 
formed  into  a  cake. 

Madder  is  produced  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  and  in  small  quantities  in  the 
United  States ;  and  the  roots  of  it,  when  peel- 


84 


MADDER. 


ed,  dried,  and  powdered,  supply  a  beautiful  red 
colour,  without  which,  those  whose  business  it 
is  to  dye  cloths,  would,  to  a  great  extent,  be 


MADDER. 


inconvenienced.  So  insinuating  is  the  colour- 
ing property  of  this  plant,  that  animals  who 
feed  upon  it  have  their  very  bones  stained  of 


CORIANDER.  85 

a  ruddy  hue.  Madder  is  also  employed  in 
medicine.  An  acre  will  produce  about  two  thou- 
sand pounds  of  dry,  saleable  madder.  It  usually 
sells  for  about  thirty-two  dollars  per  hundred. 


CORIANDER. 


Coriander  is  frequently  sown  with  teasel 
and  caraway,  in  England,  because  these  last  do 


86  CARAWAY  SEEDS. 

not  come  to  perfection  until  the  second  year ; 
so  that  the  coriander  may  be  harvested  without 
injury  to  them.  It  is  cultivated  solely  for  the 
sake  of  the  small  globular  seeds,  which  are 
used  by  distillers,  druggists,  and  confectioners, 
to  impart  an  aromatic  or  pungent  flavour.  It  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  dough  to  flavour  bread. 
It  is  raised  only  in  small  quantities  in  the  United 
States,  and  chiefly  in  gardens. 

Caraway  Seeds,  I  need  not  say,  are  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way ;  although,  as  substi- 
tutes for  plums  or  currants,  I  always  thought 
them,  when  a  boy,  quite  an  imposition  of  the 
cook.  The  plant  grows  wild  in  many  places  in 
England,  of  which  country  it  is  a  native.  It  is 
harvested  in  July,  and  threshed  out  in  the  field. 
We  raise  it  only  in  our  garden,  or  in  small 
patches  in  the  field. 


87 


HOPS. 


HOPS. 


The  hop  plant  is  a  native  of  Britain,  in  parts 
of  which  it  is  raised  on  a  large  scale,  especially 
in  the  county  of  Kent.    It  is  also  raised  to  a 


88  HOPS. 

considerable  extent  in  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  English  seem  not  to  have  been 
aware  of  its  use,  until  they  learned  it  from  the 
Continent,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  With- 
out the  dried  flower-buds  of  this  plant,  which 
are  the  hops  of  commerce,  barley-wine,  or  ale, 
would  be  unpalatable,  and  a  quickly-spoiling 
drink  ;  so  that,  unless  some  substitute  for  hops 
were  used  of  old,  the  "nut-brown-ale,"  of  which 
the  ancient  English  ballads  tell,  could  scarcely 
have  been  entided  to  the  praise  which  it  has 
received. 

I  suppose  I  scarcely  need  say,  that  this  is  a 
winding,  climbing  plant,  arising  from  a  root  that 
continues  many  years  in  the  ground,  although 
the  plant  itself  perishes  at  the  close  of  every 
season.  A  hop -plantation  requires  several  sum- 
mers' growth,  before  it  is  in  good  order  for 


HOP-HARVEST.  89' 

produce.  The  plants  begin  to  appear  about  the 
month  of  April  or  May.  When  they  are  a  few 
inches  above  ground,  poles,  about  twenty  feet 
high,  are  driven  in  for  them  to  twist  themselves 
upon.  The  season  for  the  hop -harvest  in  Eng- 
land is  about  the  middle  of  September,  but 
somewhat  later  with  us ;  and  a  busy,  busfling 
time  it  is  in  the  great  hop  countries.  Men, 
w^omen,  and  children,  now  find  plenty  to  do  for 
some  weeks.  The  method  is  this:  long  and 
large  boxes,  or  baskets,  are  prepared.  The 
plants  are  cut  off  close  to  the  earth,  and  the 
poles  being  pulled  out,  are  laid  across  those 
baskets  with  the  binds  upon  them;  the  hops 
are  then  picked  off. 

The  next  process  is  collecting  and  drying 
them  in  a  kiln;  after  which  they  are  housed 
for  some  days  in  the  stowage  rooms ;  and,  at 
H 


90  HOP-PICKING. 

last,  forced  into  bags  by  the  foot  and  leaden 
weights.  The  persons  who  perform  this  are 
called  packers. 

The  best  hops  are  put  into  finer  bags,  which 
are  called  pockets ;  the  inferiour  sort  only  are 
called  hags.  When  the  picking  is  accomplish- 
ed, the  binds,  or  stalks,  are  cleared  from  the 
poles,  which  are  stacked  or  piled  together,  for 
future  occasions.  The  haulm,  or  straw  of  the 
plant,  is  used  by  the  poorer  classes  in  England 
for  fuel,  and  is  sometimes  burnt  on  the  soil  for 
manure. 

Hops  are  a  very  uncertain  crop;  and  there- 
fore a  most  anxious  speculation  to  growers, 
in  England,  whose  chief  support  is  derived 
from  this  branch  of  business. 

A  heavy  duty  is  laid  upon  them  in  England ; 
consequently,  the    excise   officers   watch    the 


HOPS.  91 

whole  process,  lest  frauds  on  the  revenue 
should  be  committed.  Of  the  woody  part 
of  the  stalk,  after  it  has  been  soaked  in  water, 
a  coarse  kind  of  paper  may  be  made. 

This  brings  us  to  notice  plants,  which  are 
especially  cultivated  as  materials  for  manu- 
facture '  I  mean  Hemp,  Flax,  and  Teasels. 


92 


HEMP,  FLAX,  AND  TEASELS. 


HEMP. 


Hemp  is  one  of  the  herbaceous  plants,  and 
grows  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  It  has 
a   stiffish   stalk,  narrow  finger-formed  leaves. 


KEMP.  93 

and  inconsiderable  flowers.  It  might  easily  be 
passed  by,  as  a  weed  of  worthless  form,  by  un- 
informed persons.  There  is,  however,  scarcely 
a  plant  that  grows,  excepting  those  essential  for 
food,  which  ranks  with  this  in  importance.  It 
fopms  the  ropes  and  cables  which  belong  to  the 
ship ;  and  its  use  in  the  unnumbered  forms  of 
thread,  twine,  ropes,  canvas,  sacking,  and  other 
cloths,  is  beyond  estimation. 

The  principal  country  for  hemp,  as  an  'article 
of  commerce,  is  Russia;  few  other  countries 
grow  even  enough  for  their  own  consumption. 
It  is,  indeed,  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Britain ; 
particularly  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk,  and  within 
a  few  years  has  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States.  The  soil  which  suits  it  best,  is  a  moist, 
loose,  sandy  loam.  It  is  sown  in  April  or  May, 
and  the  plants  are  ready  for  pulling  up  in  three 


94  HEMP. 

or  four  months.  That  which  is  ready  first,  is 
called  jimble  ;  the  latter,  karle^  or  seed  hemp. 

As  soon  as  the  plant  is  pulled,  it  is  tied  in 
bundles,  and  set  up  to  dry  ;  at  the  end  of  about 
ten  days,  the  bundles  are  loosened  at  the  top, 
and  the  heads  are  held  upon  a  hurdle  by  olle 
person,  whilst  another  threshes  out  the  seed 
with  a  small  flail. 

The  hemp  is  prepared  for  manufacture  by 
being  Spread  out  on  the  field  to  dry,  so  that  the 
weather  may  separate  the  fibres ;  or  else  it  is 
steeped  some  days  in  stagnant  water.  The 
next  thing  is  to  cleanse  away  the  bark  from  the 
stalks.  This  is  either  done  by  the  hand,  or  by 
machinery  constructed  for  the  purpose.  It  is 
afterwards  beaten  in  mills,  and  then  combed,  or 
dressed,  by  drawing  it  through  instruments 
called  hackles^  like  those  used  by  wool-combers 
and  others. 


FLAX.  96 

The  commodity  is  then  easily  enough  spun 
into  thread,  twisted  into  ropes,  or  woven  into 
cloth,  according  to  the  required  purpose. 

Hemp-seeds  are  used  as  food  for  poultry; 
and  an  oil,  of  some  value,  is  obtained  from 
them.  The  inner  woody  stalks  (for  it  is  the 
bark  only  which  is  manufactured)  are  used  in 
countries,  where  fuel  is  scarce,  by  the  poorer 
classes,  instead  of  wood. 

Flax  is  another  herbaceous  plant,  but  of  a 
much  finer  fibre  and  quality  than  hemp,  and 
capable  also  of  being  bleached  to  snowy  white- 
ness.   Need  I  say  that  linen  is  hence  obtained  1 

It  is  supposed  that  this  incalculably  useful 
plant  originally  came  from  Egypt.  Cotton,  it 
is  true,  now  supplies  largely  its  place,  and  is 
every  year  making  the  demand  for  flax  still 
less. 


96 


FLAX. 


This  plant  is  cultivated  with  considerable 
success  in  many  parts  of  England  and  the 
United  States.    Like  hemp,  it  is  sown  in  the 


FLAX. 


spring  ;  and  the  plants,  when  ready,  are  pulled 
up  by  the  roots.  Both  stem  and  seed  are 
objects  of  importance.     The  latter,  commonly 


LINSEED.- FLAX.  97 

called  linseed^  yields  a  valuable  drying  oil  for 
the  painter's  use,  and  for  other  purposes.  A 
liquor  is  also  obtained  from  this  seed,  by  means 
of  boiling  water,  which  our  nurses  call  linseed 
tecij  and  which  is  accounted  useful  for  coughs, 
and  other  diseases  proceeding  from  irritation  of 
the  throat  and  lungs. 

The  flax  intended  for  linen  is  conveyed  in 
bundles  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  undergo  the 
process  of  watering ;  there  it  is  thrown  into 
ponds  of  soft  stagnant  water,  in  which  it  is 
kept  for  several  days.  By  this  means  the  bark 
is  detached.  The  bundles  are  then  laid  out  on 
the  grass,  in  regular  rows,  till  the  flax  separates 
from  the  stalks  on  being  rubbed  between  the 
hands.  After  various  dressings,  similar  to 
those  of  hemp,  it  is  fit  for  the  manufacturer's 
use. 

7  1 


98  TEASELS. 

Now  for  Teasels. — These  are  plants  some- 
what resembling  thistles.  When  the  flower 
has  faded,  the  seeds  are  contained  in  a  sort  of 


TEASELS. 


honey-comb  structure,  shaped  like  an  egg, 
abounding  in  small  hooks,  of  a  hard  and  stub- 
born substance.      This   teasel   head,  with   its 


STRAW.  99 

scratching  hooks,  is  used  by  the  wool-combers 
for  raising  what  is  called  the  nap  on  cloths. 
Several  of  the  heads  are  fixed,  either  on  boards 
or  to  the  outer  circle  of  a  large  w^heel,  by 
which  the  purpose  is  accomplished.  Nature 
supplies  us  with  abundance  of  materials^  but 
with  very  few  iools^  like  the  teasel  head,  ready 
for  our  use ! 

Fields  of  teasels,  which  are  to  be  seen  in 
some  places,  are  not  the  most  convenient 
thoroughfares  for  persons  in  flowing  robes, 
very  few  of  which  would  be  left  on  the  backs 
of  such  as  might  be  compelled  to  hurry  through 
them. 


I  rather  think  that,  farmer  as  I  call  myself,  I 
have  omitted  to   take   any  account  of  a  very 


100  STRAW. 

material  article  of  agricultural  produce,  which 
should  have  been  noticed  whilst  treating  of 
corn. 

Well  then,  I  suppose  I  must  say  that  the 
stalks  of  grain,  and  some  other  plants,  are  call- 
ed Straw  ;  and  as  this  article  covers  houses, 
litters  horses,  manures  the  land,  forms  the  door- 
mat to  the  cottage  and  the  head-covering  of 
the  ladies,  a  word  or  two  must  be  spared  about 
It;  more  especially,  as  I  have  not  forgotten 
such  things  as  caraway  seeds  and  teasels. 

Wheat  straw,  in  England,  being  the  strongest 
and  longest,  is  so  much  better  than  any  other, 
that  little  else  is  sent  to  market  for  common 
use.  In  the  United  States  we  prefer  Rye  straw, 
which  is  generally  longer,  brighter,  and  pos- 
sesses greater  strength. 

After  threshing,  it  is  either  stacked  by  itself, 
or  gathered  and  tied  in  what  we  term  bundles^ 


HAiii:^jvi.  >  101 

but  which  by  the  English  are  called  trusses. 
Thirty-six  trusses,  each  weighing  thirty-six 
pounds,  in  that  country,  form  a  load  of  straw. 
We  generally  sell  it  by  the  ton.  This  commo- 
dity is  disposed  of  in  the  markets  in  the  same 
manner  as  hay. 

I  may  just  add  here,  that  the  stalks  of  po- 
tatoes, beans,  and  some  other  such  plants,  have, 
in  England,  the  appropriate  name  of  haulm.  I 
wish  this  term  was  common  with  us. 


It  is  evident  that,  owing  to  the  varied  qualities 
of  land,  and  the  equally  varying  management 
which  the  numerous  vegetable  productions 
require,  a  farmer,  if  ignorant,  unskilful,  or 
negligent,  will  soon  find  an  enemy  in  every 
circumstance  around  him.     The  wrong  time, 


102       ''   .'':'•,'  ' :  RSMAKics. 

or  the  wrong  place,  or  the  wrong  method,  will 
make  his  labour  the  most  costly  folly  to  which, 
probably,  he  could  addict  himself.  Not  many, 
however,  of  those  who  have  been  brought  up 
to  the  business,  err  to  this  extent :  it  is  chiefly 
those  who  turn  from  other  pursuits  to  this,  who 
find  out,  when  too  late,  that  they  have  not 
knowledge  and  industry  enough,  even  to  be- 
come a  farmer ! 


103 


LIVE    STOCK. 


OXEN. 


This  part  of  the  produce  of  the  farm,  is  that 
by  which  the  occupier  realizes,  frequently,  the 
principal  part  of  his  profits.  Americans  are 
fond  of  good  living ;  and  would  consider  they 
dined  poorly  indeed,  if  they  had  no  other 
viands  than  the  choicest  vegetable  productions. 
They  must  enjoy  the  substantial  and  savoury 
blessings  of  beef  and  bacon,  mutton,  lamb,  and 
veal,  and  all  the  varieties  of  poultry  and  of 
game,  or  they  (at  least  the  wealthier  classes) 
think  themselves  objects  of  comoassion,  re- 
stricted to  vegetable  diet ! 


104  OXEN. 

Well  then,  as  they  are  able  and  willing  to 
pay  for  these  things,  we  farmers  and  graziers 
endeavour  to  supply  their  wants ;  and  are  not 
sorry  to  have  another  way  of  disposing  of  our 
vegetable  produce,  besides  the  sale  of  it  for 
money.  By  feeding  animals  which  are  requir- 
ed for  the  table,  we  get  rid  of  our  grass,  hay, 
corn,  and  other  things,  in  a  more  advantageous 
manner,  than  if  w^e  wxre  obliged  to  sell  all  for 
others  to  consume. 

The  first  on  the  list  of  meats,  undoubtedly, 
must  be  beef. 

The  Ox — in  a  wild  state  called  the  Bison — 
is  an  animal  com.prising  the  most  useful  as- 
semblage of  qualities  and  materials  for  the 
varied  necessities  of  man  in  a  civilized  con- 
dition, of  any  creature  with  which  nature  has 
supplied  him.  Cattle  of  this  class  yield  sub- 
sistence,  living   or  dead ;    and  this  in    greater 


OXEN.  105 

abundance,  of  course,  than  the  other  sorts, 
which  are  inferiour  in  size.  A  Cow  may  be 
compared  to  a  sum  of  money,  from  which  a 
man  may  take  continually  without  diminishing 
his"  store ;  for  the  carcass  we  may  call  the 
principal^  and  the  milk  and  calves  the  interest. 
There  is,  indeed,  this  difference  in  favour  of 
the  animal  as  property,  that  she  will  yield  in  a 
year,  perhaps,  twice  the  value  of  her  purchase 
and  food ;  whilst  the  same  sum  in  money  will 
not  generally  yield  in  the  public  funds  much 
more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  its  own  amount 
as  interest. 

In  enumerating  the  uses  to  which  the  body 
of  this  creature  is  apphcable,  we  must  reckon 
up  all  the  different  substances  of  which  it  is 
composed:  the  flesh,  the  fat,  the  intestines, 
the  blood,  the  bones,  the  skin,  the  hair,  the 
hoofs,  the  horns.    For  the  use  of  the  fleshy  or 


106  OXRN. 

beef^  I  will  merely  request  my  young  friends 
to  ask  themselves  the  question  at  their  usual 
dinner  hour.  That  portion  of  the  fat  which  is 
not  eaten  with  the  flesh,  helps  to  form  candles 
and  soap.  The  blood  is  employed  largely  in 
the  purification  of  sugar,  and  in  some  other 
manufacturing  processes.  Of  the  bones  are 
made  knife  and  fork  handles.  The  skin  inter- 
poses, in  the  form  of  leather,  between  the 
tender  foot  of  man  and  the  harsh  or  humid 
soil.  The  hair  serves,  in  the  mixture  of  mortar, 
for  plasterers,  to  give  it  a  tenacity,  or  power  of 
holding  together,  which  is  most  important  for 
walls  so  covered;  the  hoofs  and  horns^  dis- 
solved by  heat,  are  moulded  into  almost  any 
form  for  various  implements  of  incessant  utility 
— such  as  handles,  combs,  and  lanthorn  panes. 
The  clippings,  parings,  and  refuse  of  the  hide, 
and  other  parts,  are  boiled  down  to  a  jelly, 


r 


OXEN.  107 

which,  being  strained,  purified,  and  pressed  into 
moulds,  constitutes  glue^  without  which  our 
chairs  and  tables  would  fall  in  pieces. 

With  regard  to  the  purchase,  sale,  and  ma- 
nagement by  the  farmer,  of  these  and  other 
animals,  of  which  I  shall  have  to  speak,  little 
need  be  said  in  this  place.  They  have  their 
varieties,  in  kind  and  quality :  they  have,  too, 
their  diseases;  and  there  are  different  modes 
of  treating  them,  according  to  varying  customs, 
circumstances,  and  climates.  These  cattle  are 
less  dainty,  as  feeders  in  a  pasture,  than  the 
horse  and  the  sheep ;  and  leave  fewer  orts^  or 
refuse  food,  behind  them.  In  winter,  they  need 
hay  and  turnips.  The  latter,  sometimes,  are 
lodged  even  in  their  capacious  throats;  when 
an  instrument,  called  a  choaking  rope — a  reme- 
dy which  to  us  would  be  worse  than  the  disease 
— is  used  to  push  it  down.    A  worse  misfor- 


108  SHEEP. 

tune,  at  times,  is  occasioned  by  the  animals 
feeding  too  freely  on  growing  clover,  which 
distends  them  to  bursting  and  death,  unless  an 
incision  be  seasonably  performed. 

SHEEP. 

The  sheep  comes  second  in  the  rank  of  ani- 
mals destined  for  the  service  of  our  race.  The 
Creator,  with  a  power  and  wisdom  infinitely 
great,  varies  the  qualities  of  His  unnumbered 
gifts.  A  sheep  differs  altogether  from  an  ox ; 
even  more  in  nature  than  in  size.  Mutton,  as 
food,  is  a  change,  which  the  health,  perhaps,  as 
well  as  the  appetite,  approves,  and  constitutes 
a  large  portion  of  the  meat  with  which  our 
tables  are  supplied. 

But  the  sheep  does  more  for  us  m  the  way 
of  clothing  than  in  food,  by  resigning  to  us, 
yearly,  its  ample  coat.    Wool  has  a  property 


SHEEP -SHEA  RING.  109 

different  entirely  from  that  of  other  hair;  for 
its  constant  tendency  to  curl  and  wrinkle, 
causes  it,  when  w^oven,  to  thicken  up,  and 
make  a  closer  texture,  as  it  is  manufactured. 
This  surprisingly  important  quality  renders 
woollen  garments  the  chief  clothing  of  civiliz- 
ed man ;  and,  in  consequence,  the  wool  is  the 
means  of  subsistence  to  thousands  of  manufac- 
turers in  different  countries  of  the  world. 

Sheep-shearing  in  the  United  States  is  only 
performed  once  in  the  year.  In  warmer  cli- 
mates, application  is  twice  made  in  the  season 
to  this  compliant  animal  for  his  suit  of  clothes. 
We  generally  have  ours  sheared  in  the  latter 
part  of  May,  or  early  in  June,  when  the  state 
of  the  weather  renders  the  operation  at  least 
safe  to  the  sheep.  The  performance  is  rather 
a  rough  and  toilsome  one  to,  I  believe,  all  con- 
cerned.   The  animals  have  first  to  be  washed, 


110  LAMBS. 

which  is  repugnant  enough,  I  doubt  not,  to  the 
subjects  of  it,  who  are  generally  averse  to 
water.  The  shearing  is  any  thing  but  play  to 
the  shearer  and  the  shorn.  Great  strength  and 
dexterity  are  required  in  the  man ;  and  nothing 
less  than  the  proverbial  patience  of  the  sheep 
to  render  the  operation  possible.  The  wool  is 
cut  exceedingly  close;  and  there  seems,  in- 
deed, great  danger,  as  the  instrument  snaps 
along,  that  flesh,  as  well  as  the  coat,  will  go. 
But  they  are  rarely  injured,  unless  succeeding 
chilly  weather  renders  the  loss  of  wool  an  un- 
comfortable privation. 

Sheep  and  lambs  are  liable  to  various  acci- 
dents and  diseases. 

The  Lambs,  coming  at  a  time  when  the  sea- 
son is  frequently  severe,  are  very  likely  to 
perish,  without  great  care.  Both  sheep  and 
lambs,  being  utterly  defenceless  animals,  are  also 


HOGS.  Ill 

commonly  the  property  most  likely  to  suffer 
from  thieves  and  dogs,  notwithstanding  the 
utmost  caution  of  their  owner. 

The  fat  of  sheep  congeals  more  readily  than 
that  of  oxen,  and  is  much  used  for  tallow.  The 
skins,  when  dressed,  form  that  useful  substance 
called  wash-leather.  The  intestines  form  the 
article  erroneously  called  catgut^  used  for  musi- 
cal and  mechanical  purposes.  The  varieties  of 
this  animal  are  also  many. 

HOGS. 

Here  is  an  animal,  differing  frpm  the  other 
sorts  exactly  in  those  particulars  which  render 
it  capable  of  occupying  a  place  in  the  service 
of  man,  which,  otherwise,  must  remain  vacant 
and  unproductive ;  with  many  of  the  poor  it  is 
invaluable,  as  being  the  only  animal  of  the  nu- 
merous farming  herds  that  can  subsist  on  the 


112  HOGS. 

common  and  scanty  means  which  are  open  to 
them.  The  cow  and  the  sheep  must  have  pas- 
ture, and  often  costly  care.  Not  so  the  poor 
man's  pig :  w  ith  an  unfailing  appetite,  he  pos- 
sesses incessant  industry,  and  an  universal 
taste,  or  relish,  for  almost  any  substances, 
animal  or  vegetable,  of  the  select,  or  refuse 
kind,  which  come  under  the  cognizance  of  his 
oblique,  judicious  eye,  and  his  accurate  and 
laborious  nose. 

If  sv/ine  be  a  treasure  to  the  cottager,  they 
can  scarcely  be  less  so  to  the  farmer,  whose 
yard  and  stubble-fields  are  strewed  witli  scat- 
tered food,  which,  but  for  the  hogs,  would  be 
entirely  lost.  But  these  creatures,  naturally 
roaming,  though  herding  together,  do  not  con- 
fine themselves  to  their  owner's  domain.  In 
the  autumn  they  sometimes  absent  themselves 
for  weeks  in  the  woods  and  thickets,  in  search 


HORSES.  113 

of  their  natural  food,  the  fruits  of  the  oak,  the 
hazel,  and  the  beech,  and  those  earth-nuts  and 
esculent  roots,  which  their  acute  sense  of  smell, 
and  ploughing  snout  enable  them  to  find. 

As  the  flesh  of  pigs  is  in  high  request,  when 
young,  for  the  table,  and,  when  large,  forms  a 
staple  commodity,  cured  and  dried  as  bacon, 
we  farmers,  besides  consuming  a  great  deal 
ourselves,  find  an  important  advantage  in  this 
sort  of  stock ;  and  he  is  a  bad  manager,  or  very 
poor  indeed,  who  does  not,  at  the  proper  sea- 
son, take  care  to  be  supplied  with' a  sufficient 
store. 

HORSES. 

I  have  placed  first  such  animals  as  are  used 

for  food,  because  it  is  the  kind  of  produce,  of 

the  live  sort,  to  which  the  farmer  chiefly  looks 

for  a  return  in  money.    If,  however,  animals  are 

8    .  K 


114  HORSES. 

to  be  ranked  according  to  their  apparent  station 
in  sagacity,  dignity,  and  beauty,  the  horse 
should  certainly  be  the  first  on  the  list.  But  I 
am  only  treating  of  animals  as  they  concern  the 
farm ;  and,  therefore,  do  not  profess  to  class  or 
describe  them  as  the  naturalist  would  do. 

In  Great  Britain,  farmers  make  great  use  of 
the  horse  in  the  cultivation  of  their  lands.  In 
this  country,  we  prefer  oxen.  In  light  soils, 
horses  answer  a  good  purpose.  They  are 
quicker  than  oxen,  and  hence  the  farmer  can 
perform  with  them  more  ploughing  in  a  daj^ 
than  with  oxen.  Yet  in  this  country  we  think 
the  advantage  lies  on  the  side  of  oxen,  as  they 
are  more  hardy,  and  when  no  longer  fit  for  the 
yoke,  may  be  fatted,  and  thus  yield  the  farmer 
a  profit,  which  cannot  be  said  of  the  superannu- 
ated horse. 

Farming  horses  should  be  of  the  larger  sort 


HORSES.  115 

Their  labour  on  the  road,  as  well  as  in  the  field, 
is  heavy.  Loads  of  hay,  corn,  manure,  &c., 
generally  try  their  strength  much,  and  require  a 
good  team. 

There  is  much  in  the  care  and  management 
of  horses,  whether  at  work  or  in  the  stable, 
which  makes  the  difference  in  their  usefulness 
and  condition.  Plenty  of  food  is  one  thing,  but 
by  no  means  the  only  point  of  importance. 
With  regard  to  their  work,  judgment  and  gen- 
deness  in  those  who  guide  them  will  get  more 
service  out  of  this  sensitive  animal,  than  all  the 
blows  and  ill  usage  which  can  be  resorted  to. 
The  carman,  wagoner,  ploughman,  horseman, 
or  whoever  he  may  be  that  attends  them, 
should,  to  be  master  of  his  business,  unders'tand 
the  mechanical  means,  as  to  the  harness  and 
machine,  by  which  his  horse?'  strer^gth  is  appli- 
ed.   He  should  u:^d?^*starid  the  langTiagc  wliicb 


116  HORSES. 

the  animal  also  understands ;  and  find  out  the 
temper  of  the  different  animals,  which  varies 
much,  and  cultivate  a  good  understanding  with 
each  of  his  speechless  but  sensible  companions 
in  toil.  It  is  well  known,  that  where  one  man 
can  do  nothing  with  a  horse,  another  can,  with 
ease,  induce  him  to  perform  wonders.  The 
management  of  these  and  other  animals,  is, 
indeed,  quite  a  talent,  and  a  very  valuable  one, 
in  a  farming  man. 

The  carter  or  wagoner  always  walks  (ride 
he  ought  not)  on  the  left,  or  near  side  of  the 
horse,  or  vehicle  ;  because,  as  the  rule  is  to  let 
things  pass  him  on  the  right,  or  off  side,  he 
would  otherwise  be  placed  between  the  two 
carriages,  to  his  great  inconvenience  or  danger. 
"  Gee ! "  is  the  word,  which  makes  the  horse 
turn  to  the  right ;  and  "  Come  hither,  woa ! "  the 
mjunction  which  draws  him  towards  the  left; 


HORSES.  117 

accompanied,  sometimes,  by  passing  the  whip 
lightly  over  the  neck. 

When  hay,  or  any  other  heavy  load  is  placed 
in  a  cart,  to  which  a  horse  is  attached,  care  and 
judgment  are  necessary  to  adjust  the  weight 
with  respect  to  a  balance,  so  that  it  may  neither 
bear  nor  hang  too  much ;  for,  if  placed  too 
much  in  front,  the  stoutest  horse  might  have 
his  back  broken  by  the  pressure.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  it  is  placed  too  much  behind,  it  may 
even  force  him  up  from  the  ground. 

The  food  of  horses  used  for  labour  is  grass, 
hay,  oats,  chaff,  peas,  beans,  bran,  and  some- 
times roots,  as  carrots,  and  even  parsnips.  A 
change  and  mixture  of  food  is  generally  bene- 
ficial. Wheat,  given  in  any  considerable  quan- 
tity, will  kill  a  horse. 

The  careful  and  successful  farmer  is  never 
contented  to  let  the  management  of  his  horses 


118  HORSES. 

go  entirely  from  under  his  own  eye.  He  enters 
the  stable,  and  sees  that  they  are  not  only  fed 
and  watered,  but  well  groomed,  well  littered, 
and  made  comfortable  and  safe  for  the  night ; 
and  this  he  does,  even  though  he  may  have 
reason  to  think  his  men  are  themselves  proud 
of  their  team.  A  few  days  since  I  found  my 
thoughtless  boy  putting  one  of  my  best  horses, 
"Blackbird,"  into  the  cart,  to  go  to  the  mill, 
although  he  had  cast  a  shoe.  But  perhaps  I 
ought  not  to  expect  him  to  mind  his  business, 
»f  r,  by  sitting  here  scribbling,  neglect  my  own. 


119 


THE    DAIRY    AND    POULTRY-YARD. 

Having  concluded  all  that  I  think  useful  to 
say  about  farming  horses,  I  will  next  say  a  word 
or  two  respecting  the  dairy  and  poultry. 

I  have  living  in  my  family  a  clever  old  do- 
mestic, by  the  name  of  Susan,  who  has  long 
superintended  the  dairy,  and  has  made,  perhaps, 
as  much  butter  as  would  freight  a  ship;  and 
churned  as  much  milk  as  would  float  it !  Her 
powers  are  not  now  equal  to  her  will  and  her 
skill;  a  fact,  however,  of  which  she  is  not 
aware,  and  which  it  would  offend  her  grie- 
vously to  mention.  So  we  make  the  best  of  it ; 
and  render  her  what  assistance  she  needs,  with- 
out hinting  at  all,  that  she  cannot  do  as  she 


MILK.  121 

could  fifty  years  ago,  when,  a  ruddy  lass  of 
twenty,  she  was  first  hired  by  my  grandmother, 
in  the  kitchen. 

I  believe,  if  I  could  make  Susan  understand 
that  I  was  pretending  to  print  in  a  book  any 
part  of  the  business  of  the  dairy,  or  hen- 
houses, she  would  think  the  subject  as  much 
beyond  my  knowledge,  as  I  consider  natural 
philosophy  to  be  above  hers.  As  I  am  quite 
certain  she  will  never  read  my  writings,  I  will 
venture  to  proceed  with  the  best  information  I 
possess. 

I  suppose  I  need  not  say  that  the  material, 
the  management  of  which,  makes  the  business 
of  the  dairy,  is  milk.  This  kindly  and  health- 
ful fluid,  the  benign  sustenance  of  the  infant 
from  its  birth,  and,  in  one  form  or  another,  of 
man  in  all  periods  of  his  hfe,  is  produced  by 
various  animals  in  quantity  suflficient  to  afford 


122  THE  CHURN. 

to  their  possessors  an  important  measure  of 
their  food.  That  of  cows  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
United  States,  as  being  more  palatable,  and 
better  adapted  for  those  changes  into  solid 
forms,  which  we  require  in  butter  and  in  cheese. 
It  is  the  process  of  transformation  into  those 
substances  of  which  I  am  now  to  speak. 

The  oily  and  thicker  parts  of  milk  naturally 
separate,  on  being  left  undisturbed  for  some 
time.  The  cream^  as  we  then  call  it,  forms  a 
yellow  coat  at  the  top,  which  is  easily  skimmed 
off"  and  placed  in  separate  vessels ;  but  this, 
without  further  operations,  would  never  become 
either  butter  or  cheese.  To  make  butter,  a 
violent  mechanical  agitation  is  necessary;  to 
accomplish  which,  various  simple  machines, 
called  churns^  have  been  invented.  I  believe 
the  oldest  sort  used  both  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  is  the  common  upright  chum, 


BUTTER.  123 

consisting  of  a  high,  narrow  tub,  with  a  stick,  or 
stirrer,  passing  through  the  lid.  To  the  lower 
end  of  this  stick  is  fastened  a  flat  round  board, 
not  quite  so  wide  as  the  diameter  of  the  churn : 
this  is  the  beater ;  and  being  moved  rapidly  up 
and  down,  will  in  time  make  good  butter. 

But  the  best  and  most  expeditious  churn  is, 
perhaps,  in  the  form  of  a  barrel,  supported  on 
a  frame,  and  whirled  round  and  round  by  a 
winch.  The  time  required  for  the  continuance 
of  this  motion,  before  the  butter  comes,  as  they 
say,  varies  much,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
milk,  and  the  management  of  it,  from  one  hour, 
to  half  a  day.  When  sufficiently  formed,  the 
butter  is  taken  out,  and  pressed  with  great 
care,  to  rid  it  of  the  remaining  fluid,  called 
butter-milk,  which  would  soon  turn  it  sour 
Such  as  is  intended  for  present  use,  or  sale,  is 
called  fresh  butter.     It  is  put  up  in  different 


124  BUTTER. 

ways  in  different  countries.  In  some  it  is  form- 
ed into  moulds,  measures,  or  lengths.  In  and 
near  London,  it  is  sold  in  lumps,  by  the  pound ; 
in  other  parts,  in  portions  named  from  fluid 
measures,  as  pints  and  quarts  of  butter.  Go  a 
little  farther,  and  you  must  ask  for  half  a  yard, 
or  a  yard,  of  butter,  according  to  your  need. 

Salt  butter  is  packed  in  firkins,  and  pickled, 
or  salted,  to  preserve  it  for  a  length  of  time. 
Many  tricks  are  played  by  dishonest  persons  in 
this  business  to  increase  the  apparent  weight, 
or  bulk,  and  to  impose  a  bad  article  for  a  good 
one.  Sometimes  it  is  packed  hollow,  with 
w^ater  between ;  or  bad  butter  is  placed  within, 
and  good,  just  at  the  ends  of  the  firkin.  So 
much  has  been  done  in  this  way,  that  an  act  of 
parliament,  in  England,  has  been  made  ex- 
pressly against  it. 

In  England,  Epping  and  Dorset  butter  have 


CHEESE.  125 

each  a  name  in  the  market ;  and  vast  quantities 
are  sold  as  such,  which  could  never  possibly 
have  been  produced  at  those  places.  This 
commodity  is  a  most  important  article  of  com- 
merce ;  fifty  thousand  tons  weight  being  annu- 
ally consumed  in  London  only. 

Cheese  is  another  form,  in  .which  milk  be- 
comes manufactured  into  a  substantial  articie 
of  food,  and,  therefore,  of  trade.  The  mere 
process  is  simple  and  easy  enough.  The  milk 
is  curdled — that  is,  the  more  soUd  parts  are 
separated  from  the  whey,  by  a  small  quantity 
of  a  liquor,  called  rennet^  prepared  from  the 
inner  skin  of  a  calf's  stomach.  The  curds, 
after  being  cleared  of  the  whey,  are  collected 
together,  subjected  to  a  strong  pressure  in 
moulds,  or  bags,  and  then  dried  for  use.  In 
the  United  States  the  cheese  in  greatest  favour 
IS  Goshen  cheese.      The  town  of  Goshen  is 


126  CHEESE. 

situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  of 
Connecticut.  The  people  of  Boston,  however, 
and  its  vicinity,  receive  much  of  the  cheese 
which  is  made  in  several  parts  of  Massachu- 
setts, particularly  in  New  Braintree,  in  the 
county  of  Worcester.  Large  quantities  of  ex- 
cellent cheese  are  annually  brought  to  the 
Boston  market,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  a 
large  premium  which  is  annually  offered  by  an 
association  in  that  city  for  the  best  three  lots  of 
butter  which  may  be  presented.  Excellent 
cheese  is  produced  in  various  other  parts  of 
our  country. 

In  England,  much  is  thought  of  the  Cheshire, 
Gloucestershire,  and  other  kinds  of  cheese. 
That  which  gives  the  peculiar  flavour  to  Che- 
shire, and  other  cheeses,  is,  I  believe,  chiefly, 
the  quality  of  the  pastures  on  which  the  cows 
feed.      Besides   this,  I   have   understood  that 


THE  POULTRY-YARD.  127 

other  materials,  such   as   suet,  and   colouring 
matter,  are  commonly  added. 

That  which  is  accounted  the  richest  of  all 
English  cheese,  is  the  Stilton;  not  made,  how- 
ever, at  the  place  of  that  name,  but  in  various 
parts  of  the  midland  counties.  It  is  not  reckon- 
ed in  its  prime  till  it  is  two  years  old,  and 
decayed,  blue,  and  moist.  I  will  only  add, 
before  I  pass  to  my  next  subject,  that  Parme- 
san cheese,  made  in  Italy,  is  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  ewe's  or  goat's  milk  with  that  of  the 
cow,  and  is  much  esteemed  at  the  tables  of  the 
wealthy. 

THE  POULTRY-YARD. 

The  species  of  fowls  which  best  reward  man 
for  his  protection  and  supplies,  are  four:  tur- 
keys, geese,  common  fowls,  as  they  are  called, 
and  ducks. 


128  TURKEYS. 

Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were 
formerly  found  in  the  forests  in  great  abun- 
dance. They  were  first  taken  to  England  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  are 
by  far  the  largest,  and,  as  some  think,  the  finest 
birds  used  for  food  in  this  or  any  other  country. 
On  account  of  the  estimation  in  which  they  are 
held,  and  the  price  they  consequently  bear, 
they  become  objects  of  attention  in  many  poul- 
try-yards. At  Christmas  time,  such  supplies 
of  these  dainty  birds  are  required  for  the  city 
of  London,  that  coaches,  it  is  said,  are  often 
loaded  with  them,  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
passengers. 

Turkeys  are  the  most  tender  and  difficult  to 
rear  of  all  our  fowls ;  so  that  the  money  they 
fetch  is  sometimes  scarcely  a  compensation  for 
the  trouble  and  their  food.  They  must  be  fed 
for  some  time  after  they  are  hatched,  with  a  sort 


COMMOJN    FOWLS.  129 

of  pudding,  made  with  milk  and  eggs.  The 
hen-turkey  is  by  no  means  so  good  a  provider, 
defender,  and  teacher  of  her  young,  as  the 
common  hen.  When,  therefore,  numbers  are 
to  be  reared,  those  duties  must  be  chiefly  per- 
formed by  man.  When  of  sufHcient  age,  grain 
and  barley-meal  will  do  for  their  food,  without 
which,  although  they  pick  about  for  insects,  they 
would  not  attain  sufficient  bulk  or  fatness  for 
the  table. 

Common  fowls^  though  disposed  of  at  a  com- 
mon price,  are  more  profitable,  in  general,  than 
the  rarer  sorts,  because  they  provide  for  them- 
selves to  a  great  extent.  I  think  there  are 
nearly  thirty  hens  in  my  yard,  with  I  know  not 
how  many  broods  of  young  chickens.  Half  as 
many  turkeys  would  require  a  yard  full  of  peo- 
ple to  take  care  of  them ;  but  these,  though 
they  need  daily  feeding,  procure  by  far  the 
9 


130  COMMON  FOWLS. 

greater  part  of  their  own  subsistence  by  inces- 
sant assiduity.  The  hens  are  admirable  and 
complete  managers  of  their  young,  whom  they 
provide  for,  teach,  and  defend,  in  the  most  com- 
petent manner  imaginable.  It  is  curious  to 
observe  the  old  hens,  when  they  have  dis- 
covered a  particle  of  food,  calling  their  brood 
around  them,  by  a  peculiar  cluck,  which  the 
young  ones  well  understand,  breaking  it  for 
them  with  the  bill,  if  too  large,  and  standing  by, 
perhaps  hungry  at  the  time,  scarcely  taking  a 
grain  for  themselves.  Then  again  as  to  fierce- 
ness and  courage,  deficient  as  the  hen  is  in 
these  qualities  when  herself  only  is  in  danger, 
she  becomes  a  winged  dragon  for  her  young, 
not  hesitating  to  attack,  with  successful  fury, 
animals  twenty  times  her  superior  in  strength. 

Hen-houses  should    have   boxes  partitioned 
forjdie  nests,  and  poles  for  the  fowls  to  roost 


COMMON  FOWLS.  131 

on  at  night,  provided  with  a  sort  of  step-ladders 
by  which  the  little  ones  may  ascend,  before 
they  can  use  their  wings.  The  hen  sits  on 
her  eggs  for  about  twenty -one  days,  with  such 
determined  perseverance,  that  she  will  almost 
perish  on  her  nest,  rather  than  remit  her  duty. 
Humanity  requires  that  these  poor  animals 
should  not  thus  be  suffered  to  injure  or  destroy 
themselves  by  the  vain  continuance  of  their  en- 
deavours to  warm  into  life  eggs  which  cannot 
be  hatched.  Long  after  they  quit  the  shell,  the 
young  chickens  find  warmth  and  shelter  beneath 
the  parent's  wing ;  and  will  even  run  to  it,  some- 
times, when  far  too  large  to  be  conveniently 
protected. 

In  about  three  months,  the  chickens  are  fit 
for  the  table,  or  for  stores.  They  are  com- 
monly fattened,  under  coops,  before  they  are 
killed ;  though,  for  my  own  part,  I  think  a  barn- 


132  EGGS. 

door  fowl, — that  is,  one  which  has  had  the  full 
run  of  the  yard,  is  quite  as  palatable,  and  per- 
haps more  wholesome  meat,  than  one  gorged 
with  excessive  feeding,  without  exercise,  or  the 
enjoyment  of  its  own  notions  of  quantity  and 
selection. 

The  eggs  produced  in  the  winter  months, 
are  by  no  means  an  unprofitable  store  at 
Christmas  and  the  festive  season.  Five  and 
six  cents,  in  hard  winters,  have  sometimes  been 
given  for  an  egg. 

The  poultry -yard  is  sometimes  exposed  to  the 
depredations  of  quite  a  merciless  foe  —  the  fox. 
Formerly  our  farmers  were  greatly  annoyed  by 
these  animals,  and  were  obliged  to  secure  their 
poultry-house,  as  they  did  their  granaries.  If, 
however,  at  any  time,  reynard  obtained  admit- 
tance, the  defenceless  birds  were  drawn,  one 
after  another,  from  the  roost,  and  slain  with  as 


GEESE.  133 

little  humanity  about  it,  as  is  felt  by  a  native 
savage  in  the  moment  of  his  proudest  victory. 
Whilst  the  fox  attacks  the  birds,  rats,  skunks, 
weasels,  and  other  vermin,  make  equal  havoc 
v^ith  the  eggs;  sucking  or  carrying  them 
away  with  astonishing  secrecy  and  despatch. 

Geese  are  not  always  inhabitants  of  the  far- 
mer's premises ;  for,  as  they  feed  with  a  some- 
what unsavoury  spoon  on  the  meadow-grass, 
horses  and  other  animals  do  not  much  relish 
their  leavings; — in  fact,  they  will  not,  if  they 
can  help  it,  feed  after  them.  It  is  where  there 
is  an  open  green,  or  common,  with  ponds  of 
water,  that  these  birds  thrive  best,  and  do  their 
owners  most  good.  They  are  to  a  proverb 
stupid ;  yet  have  sense  enough,  in  general,  for 
their  occasions.  They  know  their  home ;  and, 
at  the  close  of  evening,  resort,  thither  in  a  row, 


134  GEESE. 

without  confusion,  or  the  least  diversity  of 
purpose. 

These  animals  will  live  almost  entirely  on 
grass;  and  cost,  therefore,  very  Uttle,  where 
they  can  do  no  harm.  About  Christmas  they 
are  in  season,  and  in  the  greatest  request ;  and 
the  number  disposed  of  in  the  markets  then  is 
very  great. 

There  are  two  orders  of  beings  to  whom  the 
public  are  especially  indebted  for  their  literary 
treasures — I  mean  geese  and  authors.  It  is 
lucky  w^hen  the  quill  does  not  come  a  second 
time  into  the  possession  of  a  goose,  or  one  of 
similar  capacity.  The  demand  for  quills  is  so 
great,  that  vast  flocks  of  geese  are  kept  in  the 
fens  of  Lincolnshire,  in"  England,  and  else- 
where, to  produce  the  required  supply.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  poor  birds,  their  feathers  are 


DUCKS.  135 

in  great  request  too,  for  bedding ;  so  that  they 
are  plucked  alive,  five  times  in  the  year,  for 
feathers,  and  their  wrings  once,  for  their  unri- 
valled quills. 

In  respect  to  ducks,  as  they  do  not  graze,  or 
scratch  the  soil,  farmers  need  not  be  afraid  of 
any  mischief  from  them,  and  they  require 
small  attention  and  supphes.  They  do  not 
hatch  so  early  as  hens ;  and,  therefore,  it  is 
common  to  put  some  of  their  eggs  under  a 
sitting  hen,  who  w^ill  perform  the  office  as 
well  as  if  they  were  her  own.  She  is,  how- 
ever, sadly  perplexed  and  frightened,  when 
her  brood,  notwithstanding  all  her  care  and 
clucking,  take  to  the  water,  according  to  their 
nature. 

I  have  now,  I  believe,  mentioned  the  prin- 
cipal animals  which  the  farmer  maintains  for 
his  use  or  profit  in  this  country.    There  are 


136  GAME. 

Others,  which,  unfortunately,  he  is  compelled 
to  keep,  to  his  own  great  inconvenience  and 
damage; — these  are  the  species  of  depreda- 
tors, of  which  I  have  elsewhere  spoken  as 
vermin. 

In  England,  the  farmers  experience  one 
inconvenience,  from  which,  in  this  republican 
country,  we  are  exempted.  There,  laws  are 
in  force,  the  design  of  which  is  to  prevent  the 
common  people  from  killing  most  wild  animals, 
and  birds,  fit  for  eating.  These  are  preserved 
for  the  benefit  and  pleasure  of  the  higher 
orders.  And,  indeed,  as  they  form  the  great 
inducement  to  the  gentry  to  reside  during 
a  part  of  the  year  on  their  estates,  and  so 
spend  some  of  their  money  in  the  country, 
it  would  certainly  be  unwise  to  destroy  or 
extirpate  entirely,  even  if  the  laws  permitted 
people  so  to  do.    The  farmer,  however,  often 


GAME.  137 

suffers  severely  from  the  appetites  of  these 
creatures,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  for- 
bidden to  indulge  his  o\^r.  v^j^h  one  of  their 
number  in  return. 

M 


138 


HAY-MAKI]V<^ 


The  season  of  hay  making  is  generally  one 
of  the  most  delightful  in  the  whole  year.  It 
usually  begins  in  this  country  about  the  20th 
of  June.  If  the  weather  be  fine,  all  is  now 
bustle  and  activity  throughout  the  country. 
The  farmers  in  general  are  in  fine  health; 
although  they  may  get  but  little  sleep,  they 
work  day  after  day  with  great  animation. 

It  is  usual,  during  this  season,  for  men  who 
are  professed  mowers  to  go  round  the  country 
to  supply  the  extra  demand  for  hands,  during 
the  gathering  in  of  the  hay-harvest.  They 
find  their  own  tools,  and  make  the  best  bargain 
they  can  with  their  employers,  working  either 
by  time  or  by  the  piece,  as  may  be  agreed  on. 


HAY-MAKING.  139 

From  five  to  six  shillings  an  acre  is,  I  believe,  a 
very  common  price  for  mowing.  Often  the 
price  is  still  more,  if  the  grass  be  very  stout,  or 
the  land  uneven. 

The  apparently  simple  and  easy  operation  of 
cutting  the  tender  blades  and  stems  of  grass 
with  the  scythe,  is  admitted  by  master  and  man 
to  be  the  most  severe  bodily  exertion  among 
all  rural  employments.  The  strain  upon  the 
back  and  arms  is  very  great ;  and  many  strong 
men  are  wearied  out  by  it,  especially  at  first. 
There  is  also  an  important  measure  of  knack 
and  skill  required  for  whetting,  setting,  and 
holding  the  blade,  or  the  labor  is  intolerably 
increased,  and  the  consequence  would  be  a 
scored  and  ill-cut  field. 

To  be  better  understood,  I  will  proceed  to  a 
small  enclosure,  in  which  are  six  men,  set  on 
to  mow. 


140  MOWING. 

Pray  how  do  my  little  city  friends  suppose 
these  six  men  proceed  with  their  six  scythes 
mowing  down  this  piece  of  grass?  "How! 
why  they  need  not  consider  long  about  that/' 
perhaps  you  reply;  "each  may  begin  in  any 
part,  and  leave  off  when  all  is  mown."  Not 
SQ,  if  you  please :  —  they  might,  if  they  had  no 
plan  of  operation,  miss  portions,  or  meet  casu- 
ally, or  follow  carelessly,  and  cut  each  other's 
feet.  The  way  is  this :  one  commences  alone 
at  the  side  of  the  field,  and  cuts  a  few  swaths  ; 
that  is,  by  the  sweep  of  his  scythe  he  clears  a 
certain  space,  and  leaves  the  grass  he  has  cut, 
in  a  straight  row  on  his  left  hand  as  he  goes  on. 
This  first  man  in  time  and  place  is  called  "  my 
lord.''  When  he  has  got  a  few  paces  forward, 
the  second  man  begins  also  at  the  side  of  the 
piece,  and  just  where  the  sweep  of  his  own 
scythe  will  take  off  a  similar  width,  without 


hai-making.  141 

leaving  any  standing  between  his  pathway  and 
that  of  him  who  precedes  him.  This  second 
man  also  leaves  the  swath  in  a  line  at  his  left 
hand,  which  forms  another  row.  In  the  same 
way,  when  he  has  got  far  enough  away,  the 
third  man  begins,  and  so  on,  if  there  were 
twenty.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  in  this  way  no 
man  can  interfere  with  his  companion's  work. 
All  is  regular,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  patches 
being  left  undone,  to  require  a  second  visit. 
When  the  field  is  thus  cut,  the  grass  is  said  to 
be  ''lying  in  the  swaths.^^  In  this  state  it  is 
best  to  lie,  if  rains  should  come  on,  or  appear 
probable.  At  any  rate,  it  is  not  usual  to  disturb 
it,  until  the  mowers  are  out  of  the  field ;  unless, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  should  happen  to  be  pro- 
pitiously fine  after  much  showery  weather. 

Shaking'Out  is  generally  performed   in   the 
United  States  by  boys';  but  in  England  by  the 


142  HAY-MAKING. 

women  and  children  of  the  village.  For  this 
operation  any  one  can  see  that  the  regular 
method  in  which  the  grass  has  been  laid  by  the 
mowers,  makes  the  employment  regular  and 
easy.  The  same  plan  is  adopted.  One  takes 
the  first  row,  and  the  second  follows  on  the 
next,  and  so  on.  Now,  we  would  not  thank 
any  one  to  work,  even  for  nothing,  who  should 
conclude  that  the  grass  may  be  tossed  about 
with  the  fork,  as  a  cow  might  do  it  with  her 
horns.  If  we  have  not  sufficient  confidence  in 
the  day  to  shake  it  fairly  out,  we  order  the 
swaths,  which,  perhaps,  have  lain  already  a 
day,  to  be  just  turned  ovei\  without  much  dis- 
turbing the  mass  as  it  grew  together.  If  other- 
wise, the  separation  of  the  swath  must  be 
complete.  We  do  not  allow  lumps  of  grass  to 
be  thrown  about,  portions  of  ground  to  remain 
uncovered,  and  so  on ;  but  the  entangled  knots 


HAYMAKING.  143 

must  be  fairly  parted  on  the  fork,  the  grass 
must  be  evenly  spread,  and  the  party  are  to 
work  in  neighbouring  rows  until  the  whole  be 
completed. 

I  must  not  be  too  long  in  the  hay-field ;  and 
therefore  proceed  more  briefly  in  my  account 
of  the  business.  The  next  thing  to  be  done, 
after  the  grass  has  had  the  best  part  of  the 
day's  sun,  is  to  put  it  again  into  forms,  called 
wiiid-roivs.  Wooden  rakes,  or  the  hay -forks, 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  then  not  so 
much  exposed  to  the  dews  of  the  night ;  and 
by  lying  in  a  sort  of  ridge,  light  and  hollow, 
admits  of  the  wind  passing  through  it,  which 
has  nearly  a  similar  effect  with  the  sun,  in 
drying  the  herb. 

A  little  knowledge  and  experience  are  re- 
quired to  enable  persons  to  judge  when  the 
grass  has  lain  long  enough,  and  had  a  suflTicient 


144  HAY-MAKING. 

exposure  to  the  sun  and  air.  In  very  hot 
burning  weather,  one  day  will  make  it  into  hay ; 
but  this  seldom  happens.  Generally  the  wind- 
rows have  to  be  raked  into  small  heaps,  called 
cocks^  several  times,  if  not  against  rain,  at  least 
as  a  protection  from  the  dews  of  the  night. 
Hay-makers  never  commence  this  part  of  their 
work,  until  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
in  order  to  allow  previous  time  for  the  dews  to 
evaporate.  Should  the  weather  continue  good, 
in  three  or  four  days  the  hay  is  made  and  ready 
for  carting.  Carts,  with  large  ladders  before 
and  behind,  or  wagons,  are  drawn  into  the 
field.  Strong  men  are  now  employed  to  pitch 
and  load :  that  is,  to  thrust  up  bundles  of  the 
hay  on  long-handled  forks,  whilst  others  in  the 
vehicle  receive  it  at  their  hands,  and  dispose  it 
so  as  to  ride  well  in  a  large  mass.  So  much, 
indeed,  will  they  cram  in,  and  lay  on,  that  the 


STACKING  THE  HAY.  145 

load  seems  as  large  as  a  considerable  stack, 
almost  concealing  the  oxen,  whilst  it  moves 
slowly  along  the  mead. 

Stacking  the  hay,  is  another  operation  which 
requires  knowledge  and  practice.  A  spot  is 
generally  selected  for  this  purpose,  which  lies 
high  and  dry.  A  foundation  is  first  laid  of 
bushes,  faggots,  or  logs,  formed  into  a  square 
of  about  the  size  required  for  the  supposed 
quantity.  When  the  load  comes  up,  one  man 
stands  to  receive  and  deposit  the  hay  on  this 
foundation,  whilst  another  delivers  it  from  the 
cart.  If  care  be  not  taken  in  stacking,  the  hay 
will  be  laid  in  curly  bundles  and  irregular  knots, 
which  will  not  cut  and  bind  well ;  but  we  sel- 
dom have  faults  of  that  sort  to  complain  of. 
The  great  danger  is,  in  stacking  the  hay  too 
green,  or  a  little  damp ;  in  which  case,  if  the 
rick  be  large,  as  fifty  or  sixty  loads,  the  chance 
10  N 


STACKING  THE  HAY.  147 

of  its  taking  fire,  or  consuming  without  flame 
inwardly,  is  very  great. 

I  never  remember  such  a  burst  of  rustic 
mirth  as  occurred  one  day — I  think  it  was  in 
the  first  summer  I  spent  on  a  farm — when  I 
said  the  hay  was  so  dry,  I  was  afraid  it  would 
take  fire!  I  had  heard  of  hay-stacks  burning 
of  themselves,  and  could  not  conceive  that  it 
could  be  when  they  were  at  all  wet.  My  igno- 
rance was  made  more  amusing  to  them,  and 
painful  to  me,  by  a  good  deal  of  conceited 
positiveness  on  my  part,  which  would  not  for  a 
long  time  give  way  to  the  repeated  assurances 
of  others,  who  had  had  fifty  years'  experience. 
Those  husbandmen  could  not,  of  course,  ex- 
plain to  me,  that  a  chemical  action,  called  fer- 
mentation^ takes  place,  when  herbage  is  laid 
together  in  a  mass,  and  that  this  effect  is  gene- 
rally more  or  less,  in  proportion  to  the  degree 


148  STACKING  THE  HAY. 

of  moisture  present  in  the  heap.  This  fermen- 
tation creates  a  sort  of  inflammable  gas,  or 
air,  which,  if  produced  in  too  great  quantities, 
exceeds  the  due  degree  of  heat,  and  at  length 
consumes  the  fermenting  body.  The  process 
of  fermentation,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  required 
to  make  good  hay  in  the  stack — or,  as  they 
say,  it  must  have  a  heat.  As  it  warms,  it  set- 
tles and  subsides  so  much,  that  the  rick  ap- 
pears, in  a  few  days,  scarcely  half  the  height 
which  it  was  when  first  set  up.  Sometimes  it 
settles  on  one  side;  and  occasionally,  if  ma- 
naged by  unskilful  hands,  it  will  topple  fairly 
over,  and  require  complete  rebuilding.  This  is 
a  vexatious  occurrence  to  those  concerned, 
when,  perhaps,  great  exertions  are  requisite  to 
do  the  work  of  this  busy  season  once. 

Whilst  we  are  about  the  stack,  I  would  de- 
scribe  to  my   readers  the    manner  in   which 


THATCHING  HAY-STACKS.  149 

stacks  are  thatched  in  England.  It  is  a  great 
preventive  against  rot  and  mould.  The  heating 
and  settling  having  taken  place,  so  as  to  render 
it  safe  to  house  in  the  stack,  persons,  whose 
business  it  is,  are  employed  for  this  purpose. 
The  roof  being  formed,  or  topped-up  to  a  suf- 
ficient height,  with  any  inferiour  sort  of  hay,  the 
thatcher  and  his  yelmer  go  to  work.  Having 
prepared  pegs  and  rods  of  split  hazel,  for  pin- 
ning and  binding  down  their  work,  the  yelmer 
gets  his  straw  in  a  heap,  and  splashes  it  pretty 
liberally  with  water.  He  then  forms  it  into 
small  lengthy  bundles  with  his  hands,  and  with 
such  art,  that  these  bundles  shall  frequently  be 
longer  than  the  straws  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, by  being  drawn  out  at  each  end.  The 
thatcher  then  mounts  his  ladder;  and,  being 
supplied  with  these  bundles,  or  yelmSj  as  fast 
as  he  needs  them,  he  bends  each  double  near 


150  THATCHING  HAY-STACKS. 

the  end,  and  twists  it  into  a  sort  of  knot ;  then, 
beginning  at  the  eaves,  he  tucks  this  part  of 
the  bundle  so  far  into  the  hay,  as  to  detain  it 
there,  the  ends  of  the  straw  hanging  out.  Hav- 
ing placed  an  even  row  of  these,  he  inserts 
another  row  just  over  them,  the  ends  of  each 
new  row  lying  half  over  the  row  which  went 
before.  Thus  the  straws  lie  one  over  another, 
like  the  hairs  on  a  cat's  back,  up  to  the  very 
ridge,  which  is,  afterwards,  either  bound  down 
close,  or  made  with  a  stiff  edging  of  straw  in 
an  upright  position.  The  whole  is  firmly  se- 
cured by  long,  bent,  and  notched  pegs,  driven 
far  into  the  stack.  The  edges  and  eaves  are 
afterwards  clipped  straight  with  proper  shears. 
When  the  stack  has  been  well  set  up,  the 
sides  properly  pulled,  (that  is,  the  outside 
looser  hay  drawn  out,  so  as  to  shew  a  flat, 
firm  surface,)  when   the   thatching  has   been 


THATCHING  HAY-STACKS.  151 

accomplished  by  a  clever  hand,  and  all  litters 
cleared  away,  the  hay-rick  is  no  mean  speci- 
men of  mechanical  skill,  or  practical  cleverness. 
This  will  stand  uninjured,  and  do  the  farmer 
credit  and  service,  after  two  or  three  seasons 
have  passed  over;  whereas,  when  slovenly 
careless  hands  have  done  every  thing  wrong, 
instead  of  right,  the  heap  looks  like  a  dung-hill, 
and  probably  becomes  one,  from  the  rain  soak- 
ing through  the  ill-managed,  half-finished  roof. 


152 


HAY-BINDING  AND   SELLING. 

Poor  farmers,  who  want  money  before  it  is 
advantageously  to  be  had,  seldom  let  their 
produce  remain  long  in  the  rick-yard,  or  barn. 
They  often  send  it  to  market,  and  lose  by  it, 
because  they  cannot  wait  a  few  months  for 
better  terms. 

Farms  near  Boston  or  New-York  have  the 
readiest  opportunities  for  this  sort  oL  proceed- 
ing. The  markets  there  ensure  a  certain  sale 
for  agricultural  goods,  provided  the  sellers  will 
consent  to  the  selling  price,  which,  when  the 
market  is  full,  is  often  very  low. 

Hay  is  a  commodity  equally  familiar  to  our 
city  and  country  readers,  loaded  in  carts  or 
wagons  for  the  buyer. 


HAY-BINDING.  153 

The  process  of  getting  it  to  market  in  this 
country  is  quite  simple.  Hay,  which  is  sold,  is 
usually  sheltered  in  a  harn,  and  when  about  to 
be  taken  to  market,  it  is  put  on  to  a  cart  or  wa- 
gon and  weighed.    It  is  sold  by  the  ton. 

In  England,  much  of  the  hay  which  is  carried 
to  market  is  taken  from  the  stacks.  Let  us  see 
how  the  farmers  there  manage. 

A  part  of  the  thatch  having  been  removed 
from  one  corner,  the  cutter  pulls  out  a  quantity 
of  the  inferiour  hay,  which  formed  the  stack 
towards  the  roof;  and,  taking  it  down  in  a 
bundle,  sprinkles  it  with  water  until  it  is  very 
wet.  His  object  is  to  make  bands,  or  hay- 
ropes,  to  tie  up  his  trusses  with.  This  opera- 
tion is  a  curious  and  dexterous  one.  A  boy 
holds  a  sort  of  winch,  made  of  a  string-bow% 
one  end  of  which  he  turns  in  a  socket  of  wood 
against  his  chest,  by  a  swift  motion  of  the  hand. 


164  HAY-BINDING. 

The  other  end  of  the  bow  has  a  sort  of  hook, 
over  which  the  man  doubles  a  small  bundle  of 
the  wetted  hay.  As  this  is  turned  round,  it  is 
twisted  in  his  hand,  and  would  form  a  rope 
only  a  few  inches  long,  if  he  did  not  briskly 
supply  the  receding  end  with  fresh  parcels  of 
hay  from  the  heap.  The  boy  steps  backward, 
as  the  band  lengthens ;  and,  when  at  the  dis- 
tance of  about  three  yards,  it  is  detached,  and 
another  is  as  speedily  prepared.  Seventy-two 
of  these  bands — that  being  the  number  for  a 
load  of  hay — have  been  made  thus,  by  a  mafi 
and  boy,  in  twenty  minutes ;  but  half  an  hour 
is  not  too  much  for  the  work, 

x4nd  now  the  cutter  taltes  up  his  knife,  con- 
sisting of  a  broad  blade,  about  two  feet  long, 
with  a  handle  standing  square  with  the  upper 
end.  He  thrusts  this  in  where  his  cut  begins, 
and,  sawing  it  up  and  down,  soon  detaches  a 


HAY-BINDING.  155 

square  corner.  He  then  strikes  into  the  parcel 
detached,  a  large  two-tined  fork,  of  which  the 
prongs  are  about  a  foot  long,  and,  thrusting  his 
hand  in  at  about  the  same  distance  down  the 
side,  he  brings  off  a  compact  bundle  of  the 
hay,  nearly  square  and  flat ;  the  external  rough 
parts  having  been  previously  removed.  This 
bundle  is  laid  across  two  of  the  bands,  which 
are  then  brought  round,  and  twisted  into  a 
tight  knot,  with  considerable  strength  and  ex- 
ertion. Hay-binders  can  usually  guess  within 
a  pound  the  weight  of  a  truss,  which  should 
be,  if  cut  before  Michaelmas,  sixty  pounds,  if 
after,  fifty-six  pounds.  But  they  do  not  trust 
to  guessing.  Steel-yards  are  always  used, 
hooked  on  the  shaft  of  a  hay-fork,  which  two 
men  support  on  their  shoulders ;  and  the  weight 
must  be  accurately  adjusted,  or  it  will  not  be 
admitted  to  the  market. 


156  DISPOSAL  OF  THE  HAY. 

Thirty-six  trusses  constitute  what  is  called  a 
load  of  hay,  in  the  south  and  eastern  parts  of 
England.  In  some  parts  a  ton,  or  twenty 
hundred  weight,  is  the  quantity. 

The  manner  in  which  hay  is  disposed  of  by 
the  farmer,  who  sends  it  to  London,  is  usually 
this :  there  are  persons  at  the  markets,  called 
salesmen^  who  receive  it  as  it  comes  in,  and,  on 
the  proper  market  days,  treat  with  the  various 
customers  who  resort  thither  to  buy.  They 
are  then  responsible  to  the  farmer,  for  whom 
they  thus  transact  on  commission,  for  the  mo- 
ney for  which  it  is  sold,  reserving  to  themselves 
five  shillings  a  load  for  their  agency.  In  this 
way,  the  vast  quantities  of  hay  seen  in  Smith- 
field,  Whitechapel,  the  Haymarket,  and  other 
parts  of  London,  are  rendered  to  the  consum- 
ers of  the  metropoUs ;  and  so  great  is  the 
supply,  sometimes,  that  country-dealers  can  go 


SECOND  CROPS  OF  HAY.  157 

to  town,  buy,  and  carry  it  home,  at  a  cheaper 
rate  than  that  at  which  they  could  obtain  it 
where  it  was  grown.  Potatoes,  fruit,  and  cat- 
tle, are  managed  in  a  similar  way. 

When  grass  has  been  cut  early,  and  the  sea- 
son holds  fine,  a  second  crop  of  hay,  usually 
called  rowen,  may  be  obtained  by  the  end  of 
August.  But  as  this  after-crop  exhausts  the 
sward  and  soil  very  much,  landlords  seldom 
allow  it  to  be  done ;  and  the  chance  of  fine 
weather  is  not  such  as  to  tempt  the  farmer 
much  to  this  line  of  conduct.  This  second 
hay,  being  softer  to  the  mouth  than  the  other, 
is  preferred  for  cows,  who  often  thrive  very 
well  upon  it. 


158 


THE   GRAIN   HARVEST. 

1  WILL  now  give  some  account  of  the  grain 
harvest,  premising,  however,  that  this  is  usually 
a  most  joyful  season  in  all  the  land,  especially 
when  the  harvest  proves  rich,  and  the  sun  is 
fair.  In  nothing  are  we  more  dependent  upon 
a  kind  Providence  than  in  respect  to  grain.  It 
is  our  chief  support.  When,  therefore,  God 
has  brought  the  harvest  to  maturity — when 
the  fields  wave  with  their  rich  burdens,  and 
the  sun  beams  forth  from  behind  the  passing 
cloud,  indicating  propitious  weather  for  the 
harvest — then,  indeed,  it  is  a  time  to  be  glad. 

Wheat  having  a  hard  and  stiffish  stem,  or 
straw,  is  usually  reaped^  or  cut  with  an  instru- 


THE  GRAIN  HARVEST.  159 

ment  called  a  sickle.  Some  cradle  it  for  the 
sake  of  the  straw,  which  is  cut  longer,  by  the 
scythe  working  nearer  the  ground,  but  this  is 
generally  a  wasteful  way. 


The  little  finger  of  my  left  hand  bears  wit- 
ness to  the  rash  confidence  of  one,  who,  like 
many  others,  thought  that  wheat  was  easy 
enough  to  cut,  and  who  did  not  know   that 


160  REAPIJNG. 

fingers'  ends  were  still  more  easily  shorn  by 
unpractised  operators.  I  nearly  lost  an  useful 
digit  at  the  second  joint,  by  an  ill-aimed  slash- 
ing stroke,  one  memorable  harvest-day;  for, 
taking  a  bundle  of  wheat  in  my  grasp,  I  eagerly 
drew  the  l)lade  too  near  under  my  finger,  and 
paid  a  penalty  in  pain,  and  the  subsequent 
inability  to  use  it. 

A  sickle  is  made  nearly  in  the  form  of  a 
half-oval,  and  has  a  toothed  edge,  like  a  fine 
saw.  To  perform  properly  with  this,  the  reap- 
er must  stoop  low,  take  a  large  bundle  in  his 
left  hand,  and  cut  accurately  and  vigorously 
with  his  right.  A  party  of  reapers  thus  em- 
ployed, proceed  in  the  same  regular  way  as 
mowers.  They  leave  the  wheat  in  small  bun- 
dles at  first  on  the  ground,  and  afterwards  tie 
it  up  m  sheaves.  The  bands  they  make  for 
this  purpose  are  formed  by  twisting  two  small 


REAPING.  161 

parcels  of  the  straw  together  at  the  ends, 
taking  care  that  the  ears  are  not  damaged  by 
the  knot.  These  sheaves  are  generally  set  up 
on  the  butts,  for  the  sake  of  drying  with  more 
ease. 

The  harvest,  I  will  suppose,  is  general  now ; 
and  we  have  one  hundred  acres  down.  We 
have  been  a  good  deal  interrupted  by  showery 
weather;  but  I  do  not  think  the  wheat  is 
materially  damaged.  Our  carting,  however, 
has  been  delayed ;  for  wheat  housed  or  stack- 
ed wet,  spoils  fast. 

Pitching  of  wheat,  that  is,  heaving  up  the 
sheaves  on  a  long  fork  into  the  wagon,  is  very 
hard  work.  He  who  receives  and  adjusts  it, 
is  not  fond  of  an  incautious  hand  to  pitch ;  for 
If  the  fork  be  thrust  forward,  instead  of  being 
withdrawn,  it  is  apt  to  wound  the  face  of  him 
11  O 


162  HARVEST  SEASON. 

who  takes  it.  I  knew  one  who  lost  an  eye 
through  such  a  circumstance. 

And  now  the  beer,  or  some  other  drink, 
flows  copiously  indeed.  The  heat  is  great, 
and  the  evaporation  from  the  human  frame, 
whilst  employed  at  the  same  time  in  severe 
labour,  isi  such  as  to  require  a  great  supply  of 
drink.  It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  drink 
ardent  spirits,  and  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  the 
custom  is  still  continued  by  many.  Not  a  few 
farmers,  however,  have  discarded  them  entire- 
ly, and  substituted  beer,  ale,  coffee,  or  milk  and 
water;  and  where  the  experiment  has  been 
properly  made,  the  work  is  better  done,  and  the 
labourers  are  far  more  healthful  and  far  more 
happy. 

The  harvest  weeks  are  indeed  a  period  of 
toil  and  solicitude,  which  none  can  understand 


HARVEST  SEASON.  163 

SO  well  as  those  whose  essential  interests  are 
at  stake  therein.  To  those  especially,  who  are 
in  difficulties  for  money,  and  have,  perhaps, 
borrowed  for  this  occasion — the  danger  of  ruin 
from  weather-spoiled,  or  otherwise  deficient 
crops,  is  an  oppressing  anxiety.  As  with  hay, 
so  with  other  produce,  the  crop,  which  by 
weather  is  reduced  to  half  its  value,  costs, 
perhaps,  twice  as  much  in  extra  labour  to  get 
it  up.  Let  those,  therefore,  who  regard  as  a 
calamity  a  shower  of  rain  on  the  day  of  a  pro- 
posed excursion,  think  how  slight  their  trouble 
really  is,  compared  with  that  of  the  industrious 
struggling  agriculturist,  whose  hopes  and  la- 
bours for  a  year  are,  perhaps,  exchanged  for 
disappointment  and  despair  by  the  dripping 
season ! 

There  is  not  so  much  to  explain,  with  regard 
to  the  grain  harvest,  as  there  is  in  hay-making, 


164  GRAIN  HARVEST. 

for  this  reason ;  grain  is  merely  cut,  carted,  and 
housed ;  whilst  grass,  as  we  have  seen,  under- 
goes a  sort  of  manufacturing  process,  distinct 
from  the  operation  of  gathering  it  in  as  a  crop. 
It  is  well,  indeed,  that  wheat,  for  instance, 
which  is  sometimes  ten  months  upon  the 
ground,  does  not  require  more  than  mere 
harvest  labours,  otherwise  it  would  be  too 
costly  a  commodity  for  common  use. 


166 


THRESHING  AND  DRESSING  GRAIN. 

I  PASS  on  now  to  the  business  which  forms, 
generally,  part  of  the  winter  employment  of 
the  prosperous  farmer,  but  which  immediately 
follows  harvest,  with  the  needy  and  embarrass- 
ed class.  The  process  of  separating  the  grain 
from  the  ear  has  been  performed  in  various 
ways,  in  different  times  and  countries.  The 
eastern  nations  placed  their  corn  in  the  circular 
track-way  of  their  cattle,  who  were  driven 
over  it,  round  and  round  a  post.  This  practice 
is  adverted  to  in  St.  Paul's  quotation  from  the 
Jewish  law:  "Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the 
mouth  of  the  ox  which  treadeth  out  the  corn." 
Both  in  the  United   States   and   in   Europe, 


166  THRESHING. 

threshing  is  the  common  mode :  a  tedious  one, 
it  seems,  but,  nevertheless,  as  good,  perhaps,  all 
things  considered,  as  any  other  method  that 
has  been  adopted. 

The  flail  is  a  smooth,  hard,  and  heavy  club 
of  vv^ood,  largest  at  its  further  end,  and  about  a 
yard  long,  fastened  by  a  leathern  thong  to  a 
handle  somewhat  longer.  The  joint  is  so  con- 
trived, by  means  of  a  part  that  turns  round, 
that  the  flail  may  have  a  sort  of  circular  motion? 
as  it  is  wielded  by  the  thresher.  Before  he 
begins,  he  sweeps  the  barn-floor,  and  carefully 
mends  and  stops  any  holes  that  he  may  see. 
He  then  takes  sheaves  from  the  bays^  or  else- 
where, and  untying  them,  spreads  them  regu- 
larly on  each  side  with  the  ears  towards  the 
middle  of  the  floor.  When  thus  adjusted,  he 
begins — or  they — for  sometimes  three  or  four 
are  employed  at  once — to  beat  the  ears  with 


THREfSHING. 


167 


the  flail,  at  every  stroke  of  which  the  grain 
flies  out  of  the  husk. 


It  is  quite  impossible  to  put  the  young  read- 
er in  possession  of  this,  or  other  manual  arts, 
in  general,  by  mere  words ;  nor  will  the  con- 
tinued sight  of  the  operation  give  the  notion 
which  is  to  be  acquired  by  practice.  The  use 
of  the  flail,  apparently  so  easy  to  the  mere 
observer,  seems   almost   impossible   to    those 


168  THRESHING. 

who  first  take  it  in  hand.  Unless  it  descend 
horizontally,  so  as  to  touch  the  floor  with  its 
whole  length,  the  shock  to  the  hand  and  arm  is 
intolerable,  whilst  the  grain  probably  remains 
untouched.  The  danger,  however,  to  by-stand- 
ers,  is  still  greater,  as  the  peasant  knows,  who 
hands  the  instrument  to  an  unpractised  opera- 
tor. He  instantly  skips  out  of  the  way,  well 
knowing  that  the  intended  blow  is  far  more 
likely  to  reach  his  head  than  the  grain  below. 
One  or  two  thumps  generally  suffice  to  cure 
the  young  beginner  of  any  notions  of  his  capa- 
bility for  that  employment.  He  walks  off*, 
blowing  his  fingers,  and  not  much  comforted 
b^/  the  broad  grin  of  the  rustics  in  the  barn. 

W^hen  a  sufficient  quantity  is  threshed  out, 
and  the  straw  raked  off*,  the  process  of  dress- 
ing commences ;  that  is,  separating  the  grain 
from  the  chaff*,  small  seeds,  and  refuse  which 


WINNOWING.  169 

is  then  amongst  it.  For  this  purpose,  various 
methods  have  been  adopted.  Generally,  those 
particles  being  Mghter  in  proportion  to  their 
bulk  than  the  grain,  winnowing,  or  winding,  will 
accomplish  the  purpose.  This  may  be  per- 
formed either  by  fanning  with  a  large  expand- 
ed machine  of  basket-work,  or  by  setting"  the 
barn-doors  open  in  an  airy  day,  and  then 
throwing  the  grain  from  a  wooden  shovel,  a 
few  yards,  against  the  windy  current.  I  have 
much  admired  the  dexterity  and  success  with 
which  this  has  been  done.  The  grain  falls  in 
one  heap,  and  the  chaff  and  rubbish  in  another, 
with  astonishing  precision. 

But  machinery  has  of  late  years  superseded 
much  of  this  skill  and  labour.  These  engines, 
by  the  strength  of  horses  and  mill-work,  which 
we  cannot  here   explain,  will  dispose  of  the 

winter's  employment  for  several  men,  in  a  few 

P 


170 


THRESHING  MACHINES. 


weeks,  or,  perhaps,  days.  Yet  it  is  doubtful, 
seeing  they  are  expensive,  and  subject  to  mis- 
management and  injury,  whether  the  farmer 
gains  much  by  them,  beyond  the  mere  conve- 
nience of  a  speedy  preparation  of  his  corn  for 
sale. 


Dressmg  machines,  for  cleansing  the  grain 
from  chaff,  &c.  seem  liable  to  fewer  objections, 


MEASURING  GRAIN.  171 

and  are  very  generally  adopted  now.  The 
wind  in  these  is  occasioned  by  the  rapid  mo- 
lion  of  wings,  or  flies,  fixed  on  a  revolving  rod. 
A  jolting  motion  is  at  the  same  time  given  to  a 
v/ire  sieve,  down  which  the  grain  slides,  and, 
in  passing,  the  smaller  seeds  and  particles  are 
bolted  through. 

The  next  thing  is  to  measure  the  grain  into 
sacks  for  the  market,  or  the  miller; — much 
nicety,  as  well  as  honesty,  is  required  here. 
The  miller  measures  when  he  receives;  and 
if  there  be  half  a  pint  deficiency  he  complains, 
and  must  have  it  rectified.  Wooden  bushels, 
(rf  exact  dimensions,  are  used.  The  top  is 
struck  off  level,  with  a  straight  edge.  Four 
bushels  make  a  sack,  eight  bushels  a  (quarter, 
and  forty  bushels  one  load  of  wheat. 

The  mode  of  threshing,  dressing,  and  mea- 
suring other  grain,  seeds,  and  pulse,  does  not 


SAMPLES.  173 

differ  enough  to  make  a  separate  explanation 
necessary.  In  all  cases  it  is  required  to  have 
the  commodity  as  clean  and  free  from  mixture 
as  possible. 

The  farmer  disposes  of  his  grain  generally, 
by  attending  the  neighbouring  weekly  mar- 
kets, to  which  millers  and  corn-dealers  resort ; 
or  he  sends  it  to  Boston  or  New-York  factors, 
or  sells  to  regular  customers  by  private  con- 
tract. Samples  are  usually  taken  to  market 
and  elsewhere,  in  canvas  bags ;  and  on  these, 
bargains  are  made  to  a  large  amount.  I  see 
the  miller  in  the  engraving  stands  rather  back, 
as  if  in  doubt.  Those,  however,  who  do  not 
understand  grain,  would  derive  litde  knowledge 
of  the  actual  quality  and  value  from  the  speci- 
mens or  the  lump.  Persons  are  not  unfre- 
quently  to  be  seen,  and  laughed  at,  who  ex- 
amine the  samples,  and  talk  about  them,  with 


174  DEALERS. 

evidently  no  experience  or  real  information  on 
the  subject.  This  is  often  observed  in  citi- 
zens, or  mechanics,  who  have  been  know^n, 
w^ith  most  consequential  airs,  to  order  a  quar- 
ter!  instead  of  a  quartern  of  corn  for  a  horse 
at  an  inn,  pouring  the  grain  from  hand  to  hand 
at  the  same  time,  with  the  vain  attempt  to 
show  how  much  they  are  up  to  "those  fellows, 
the  ostlers." 

The  public  would  get  grain  much  cheaper 
than  they  do,  were  it  not  for  the  interference 
and  rapacity  of  grain-factors  and  dealers,  who 
step  between  the  farmer  and  the  miller,  and 
merely  buy  to  sell  again.  Of  course,  all  that  they 
gain,  the  public  lose ;  but  this  might  be  borne, 
if  they  would  not  employ  their  money  as  they 
commonly  do,  to  buy  up  or  monopolize  the 
supply,  so  as  to  put  almost  their  own  price 
upon  it. 


CORN    MILL. 


176  THE  GRAIN  MILL. 

Millers  are  frequently  dealers  in  this  way, 
and  make  large  sums,  not  only  for  their  trouble 
of  grinding  and  cleansing  the  meal,  but  by 
watching  the  markets,  and  buying  and  selling, 
as  opportunities  for  making  large  profits  may 
arise. 

Perhaps  my  young  readers  will  understand 
better  a  process  of  grinding  grain  adopted  in 
England,  by  an  examination  of  the  engraving 
here  given.  We  see  here  the  part  of  the  mill 
in  which  the  grain  is  broken.  It  runs  in  from 
the  wooden  funnel,  between  the  two  stones ; 
the  upper  one  circulates  with  amazing  rapidity. 
The  stones  being  furrowed,  or  ground,  bruise 
the  corn  as  it  flies  towards  the  circumference. 
There  it  issues,  and  is  afterw^ards  cleansed 
from  the  chaff  in  other  parts  of  the  mill. 


177 


THE   POTATOE    CROPS. 

The  potatoe  is  one  of  the  most  important 
vegetables  raised  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a 
native  of  South- America,  whence  it  was  carri- 
ed to  Spain  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Quito. 
To  England,  however,  this  root  found  its  way 
by  a  different  route,  being  brought  from  Vir- 
ginia by  the  colonists  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  in  1586.  It  is  now  extensively  culti- 
vated in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  forms  one  of  our  principal  articles 
of  vegetable  food. 

Potatoes  are  raised  with  great  ease,  several 
hundred  bushels  being  often  produced  on  a 
single  acre.  Yet  he  that  would  have  a  large 
12 


178  .  POTATOES. 

crop  must  select  a  rich  soil.  The  best  pota- 
toes generally  grow  on  a  dry  and  loamy  soil, 
provided  the  climate  is  a  moist  one;  but  if 
the  climate  be  dry,  the  soil  may  be  strong  and 
heavy. 

Potatoe  grounds  are  sometimes  ploughed  up, 
when  the  roots  are  ready,  by  which  means 
they  are  uncovered  in  a  very  speedy  way  for 
the  pickers.  But  this  method  cuts  a  great 
many,  and  perhaps  leaves  many  more  in  the 
soil.  A  better  method  is  to  turn  them  out  with 
a  flat  three-pronged  fork,  made  on  purpose; 
pickers  following,  with  bags,  or  baskets,  close 
behind. 

These  roots  we  generally  sort  in  the  field — 
the  largest  and  best  being  reserved  for  the 
table  or  for  market — the  smaller  ones  to  feed 
cattle  and  sheep.  In  England,  farmers  usu- 
ually  divide   their  potatoes   into   three   sorts, 


POTATOES.  *I79 

namely,  ware^  middlings^  and  chats.  In  the 
first  class  are  put  the  very  best,  as  to  size, 
shape,  and  quality.  They  must  not  be  the 
very  largest,  which  do  not  sell  v^ell ;  not  those 
of  double  form,  or  covered  with  protuberances, 
which  are  also  rejected ;  and  not  any  that  are 
cut,  or  green,  or  hollow.  The  middlmgs  are 
those  of  which  the  size  is  less  than  that 
esteemed  the  best.  The  chats  dire  the  small- 
est, the  damaged,  the  discoloured ;  in  fact,  the 
refuse,  designed  for  cows  and  hogs.  These  sell 
at  about  a  third  of  the  price  of  the  best.  The 
growler  is  obhged  to  give  many  pounds  weight 
extra,  into  every  hundred  weight,  to  compen 
sate  the  buyer  for  the  w^eight  of  soil  and  sack 
in  the  scales.  The  profit  of  green-grocers  in 
London  and  the  suburbs,  who  sell  potatoes 
retail  by  the  pound  to  families,  is  enormous. 
They  purchase  them  at  the  markets  for  three 


180  POTATOES. 

or  four  pounds  per  ton,  and  sell  them  again  at 
a  penny  or  five  farthings  a  pound ;  by  which 
means  their  three  or  four  pounds  will  bring 
them  in,  not  less  than  nine  or  ten  guineas ! 
This  could  not  be  the  case,  if  the  London 
public  would  take  the  trouble  of  sending  to  the 
market  for  the  commodity.  As  it  is,  the  price 
obtained  by  the  grower  seldom  affords  him  a 
fair  profit,  unless  his  land  suit  them  uncom- 
monly well,  and  the  facilities  be  great  of  pro- 
curing requisite  manure. 


181 


TURNIPS. 


Turnips,  also,  are  raised  in  large  quantities 
by  some  of  the  American  farmers.  They  are 
less  nutritious  than  the  potatoe;  but  are  useful 
for  cattle  and  sheep  durmg  the  winter  season, 
while  they  are  deprived  of  green  vegetable 
food.  Some  farmers  even  fatten  their  cattle 
upon  them.  If  cows  are  allowed  to  eat  them, 
hot  water  must  be  added  to  their  milk,  or  it 
will  imbibe  an  unpleasant  taste. 

Turnips  are  very  easily  raised.  The  best 
method  of  obtaining  a  large  crop  is  to  turn 
over  a  piece  of  newly  mowed  sward  land,  rich 
and  mellow ;  which  having  done,  roll  it  with  a 
heavy  roller ;  then  harrow  it  lightly ;  next,  sow 
the  seed,  one  thimble  full,  and  only  one,  to  a 


182  TURNIPS. 

square  rod ;  bush  it,  roll  it,  and  nothing  fur- 
ther is  needfxil,  except  to  scatter  ashes  plen- 
tifully upon  the  young  plants,  when  they  have 
made  their  appearance.  This  should  be  done 
just  before  a  shower  of  rain. 


183 


GRASS. 

When  land  which  has  been  under  tillage 
is  to  be  converted  into  pasture,  some  skill  is 
required  to  select  such  species  of  grasses  in 
due  proportions,  as  may  be  best  suited  to  the 
soil,  and  consequently  afford  the  greatest  quan- 
tity of  produce  during  the  year.  The  farmer 
knows  from  observation,  that  nature  has  pro- 
vided, in  all  permanent  pastures,  a  mixture  of 
various  grasses,  the  produce  of  which  differs  at 
different  seasons ;  and  his  object  should  be  to 
imitate  nature  in  this  department  of  his  busi- 
ness. Many  of  my  city  friends,  when  on  a 
visit  in  the  country,  have  thought  the  blades  of 
grass,  constituting  the  sward  under  their  feet, 
to  be  so  nearly  alike,  as  not  to  require  the  par- 


184  GRASS. 

ticular  attention  of  the  agriculturist.  Now,  I 
believe  I  may  say,  there  are  two  hundred 
distinct  kinds  of  grasses  which  will  grow  in 
this  country,  and  which,  separately,  are  of  little 
value,  yet  collectively,  and  by  judiciously  com- 
bining the  species  appropriate  to  each  soil,  they 
form  our  richest  pastures,  and  compose  the 
sward,  which  is  in  the  aggregate  termed  grass. 
The  farmer's  experience  enables  him  to  select 
the  kinds  of  grass  proper  to  form  a  close  pas- 
ture for  sheep,  or  deeper  grazing  for  cattle  or 
a  meadow.  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  de- 
scription, with  accompanying  cuts,  of  a  few 
only  of  the  many  species  of  plants,  which  are 
grown  as  herbage  for  cattle,  more  clearly  to 
shew  you  how  very  distinct  their  form  and 
appearance  are  upon  a  close  examination. 

1.    The  FoX'tail  grass.     This  is  a  kind  of 
grass  which  has  a  short  bushy  head,  much  like 


GRASS. 


185 


a  fox's  tail.  It  is  well  suited  to  sheep  and  horses 
— but  cows  and  hogs  are  not  fond  of  it.  It 
makes  excellent  hay. 


FOX-TAIL  GRASS. 


SPIKED  FESCUE  GRASS. 


2.  The  Spiked  fescue  grass.     This  grass  is 
among  the  best  for  hay  or  pasture.     It  grows 
very  luxuriant   and  productive,  but  is  rather 
Q 


m 


GRASS. 


coarse.  In  one  important  particular  it  differs 
from  most  other  grasses  —  it  improves  in  pro- 
portion to  its  age. 


FIORIN  GRASS. 


CAT'S-TAIL  GRASS. 


3.  The  Fiorin  grass.  This  grass  has  been 
said  to  be  a  native  of  Ireland ;  but  it  has  like- 
wise been  found  growing  spontaneously  in  this 


GRASS.  187 

country.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  England, 
and  has  been  known  to  yield  nine  tons  to  the 
acre,  in  a  season.  Given  to.cov^s,  it  increases 
the  quantity  and  improves  the  quality  of  milk. 

4.  CafS'tail  or  Timothy  grass.  This  grass 
is  a  native  of  the  United  States.  It  is  some- 
times called  Cat's-tail  from  the  resemblance  of 
its  head  to  the  tail  of  a  cat.  It  often  goes  by 
the  name  of  Herd^s  grass,  and  is,  perhaps,  bet- 
ter knpw^n  in  New-England  by  this  than  any 
other  name.  It  is  said  that  it  was  first  found 
in  a  swamp  in  Piscataqua,  (Portsmouth,  New- 
Hampshire,)  by  one  Herd,  who  propagated  it. 
It  is  the  best  of  all  our  grasses.  It  often  yields 
two  or  three  tons  of  good  hay  to  the  acre,  and 
thirty  or  forty  bushels  of  seed.  This  grass  was 
unknown  in  England  until  1780,  when  it  was 
taken  thither  by  one  Hudson. 


188 


HERBAGE     PLANTS. 

Clover.  The  cultivation  of  clover,  and  other 
herbage  plants,  is  indispensable  in  the  manage- 
ment of  an  arable  or  grain  farm.  Upon  land 
which  is  not  so  rich  as  to  allow^  of  being  con- 
stantly under  tillage,  but  requires  what  we  may 
term  rest^  by  being  for  a  short  interval  in  pas- 
turage. Clover,  Lucern,  Saintfoin,  Slc.  are 
plants  which  the  farmer  finds  greatly  to  his 
interest  to  cultivate.  The  clover  family  is 
numerous. 

I  give  you  a  representation  of  two  sorts, 
Meadow  Clover,  and  White  Clover.  Meadow 
clover  resembles  red  clover,  which  I  have  not 
described  in  this  little  work,  but  it  is  of  a  paler 


CLOVER. 


189 


hue,  not  so  high  in  its  growth,  with  whitish 
flowers;  it  is  a  perennial  plant,  that  is,  con- 
tinues to  grow  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
red  clover,  which  I  allude  to,  only  lasts  two 
years. 


MEADOW  CLOVER. 


WHITE  CLOVER. 


White  clover  is  also  a  perennial,  and  is  often 
found  in  abundance  in  native  pastures. 


190  LUOERN. 

Lucern  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  clover- 
like shoots,  the  flowers  blue  or  violet:  it 
is  not  much   recommended  by  farmers,  who 


LUCERN. 


have  tried  it,  for  general  culture,  as  it 
requires  labour  to  keep  it  from  grass  and 
weeds. 


SAINTFOIN. 


191 


Saintfoin  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  showy 
red  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  England,  on  dry, 
chalky  soils.     Its  peculiar  value  is,  that  it  will 


SAINTFOIN. 


glow  oil  podr  soils  unfit  for  tillage.  Its  herbage 
is  good  for  pasturage  or  hay,  and  it  is  gene- 
rally considered  a  most  valuable  plant. 


192 


DEALING   AND   MONEY    MATTERS. 

And  now,  as  we  farmers,  hearty  and  hungry 
as  we  are,  by  reason  of  our  rural  labours, 
do  not  grow  all  this  com  and  cattle  for  our 
own  eating,  it  remains  to  shew  in  what  way 
we  gain  or  lose  by  the  disposal  of  the  pro- 
duce, or  by  our  various  receipts  and  pay- 
ments. 

Farming,  considered  as  a  trade  in  commodi- 
ties, has  been  a  business  wherein  a  man,  of 
moderate  means  and  capacity,  might,  with 
industry,  get  wealth.  At  present,  those  are 
reckoned  prosperous  farmers  who  manage  to 
,  retain  their  property  undiminished,  and  keep 
out  of  debt. 


A  FARMER'S  EXPENSES.  193 

In  this  country,  the  farmers,  as  a  class,  are 
m  a  far  happier  condition  than  those  in  Eng- 
land. Here  a  majority  of  them  are  the  owners 
of  the  soil  which  they  cultivate — but  in  that 
country  the  land  belongs  chiefly  to  the  great 
and  powerful,  called  the  nobility.  Besides,  we 
have  in  the  United  States  but  few  taxes,  and 
those,  in  comparison  with  the  Enghsh  farmer's 
taxes,  are  light  and  trivial.  I  will  give  some 
account  of  these  matters  in  England,  from 
which  I  am  sure  our  little  readers  will  readily 
perceive  how  much  better  the  condition  of  the 
American  farmer  is  than  that  of  the  English 
farmer.  Observe,  then,  with  whom  the  lat 
ter  has  to  settle  before  he  can  count  upon 
any  profit  from  his  toil.  These  are  chiefly 
the  King,  the  landlord,  the  clergyman,  the 
overseer,  the  labourer,  and  those  of  whom 
l.S  R 


194  KENT, 

he  purchases  his  stock,  materials,  and  imple- 
ments. 

The  King's  taxes  are  not  what  they  used  to 
be :  for,  at  one  time,  even  agricultural  horses, 
and  some  kinds  of  carts,  paid  duty.  The 
chief  thing  remaining  now,  is  the  land-t^x. 

The  landlord,  as  proprietor  of  the  soil,  has 
an  undoubted  right  to  put  any  price  he  may 
think  proper  upon  it.  It  is  for  the  farmer 
to  consider,  before  the  bargain  is  made,  what  it 
will  suit  him  to  give,  taking  other  expenses  into 
the  account.  I  may  say,  in  a  rough  way,  that 
land,  in  England,  varies  from  one  pound,  to  two 
or  three  pounds  an  acre,  according  to  circum- 
stances of  soil,  situation,  and  other  particulars. 

The  rent  and  other  matters  being  agreed 
on,  a  written  engagement  for  a  term  of  years, 
^hicn  binds  the  landlord  to  let,  and  the  tenant 


LEASES.  195 

to  hold,  on  certain  conditions,  is  draAvn  up  by 
a  lawyer.  This,  I  suppose,  I  need  not  say,  is 
called  a  lease.  The  conditions  are  called  cove- 
nants^ in  which  the  landlord  is  naturally  dispos- 
ed to  take  sufficient  care  of  himself.  Without 
going  too  much  into  dry  matters,  I  will  just  say, 
that  the  principal  covenant  on  the  landlord's 
part  is,  to  let  the  tenant  have  unmolested  pos- 
session of  the  farm  during  the  term  granted ; 
and  this  is  an  engagement  from  which  he  can 
in  no  way  free  himself;  even  though  another 
should  offer  him  ten  times  the  rent. 

The  conditions  on  the  part  of  the  tenant  are 
many,  and  sometimes  grievous;  yet  such  as  men 
will  consent  to,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  what 
they  are  apt  to  think,  at  first,  will  be  a  good  busi- 
ness. He  agrees  to  give  so  much  money  per 
lonum,  in  quarterly  payments; — he  undertakes 


196  r.RASEs. 

to  farm  the  land  in  a  certain  way ;  —  to  keep 
the  house  and  buildings  in  repair ;  —  to  manure 
to  a  certain  extent ;  —  to  pay  a  heavy  penalty, 
if  he  shall  break  up  a  pasture  without  leave. 
He  engages,  generally,  not  to  cut  the  grass  a 
second  time  in  the  season.  Sometimes  he  is 
restricted  from  growing  potatoes  and  from 
selling  hay.  He  is  forbidden  to  cut  down  the 
smallest  timber  tree.  Sometimes  the  lease 
gives  extra  powers  to  the  landlord,  of  raising 
rent,  and  enforcing  penalties. 

And  suppose  the  farmer  cannot  pay  his  rent 
on  the  rent-day?  The  landlord  then  may 
distrain  for  it ;  that  is,  he  can  put  a  bailiff,  a 
kind  of  constable,  on  the  premises,  and,  after 
five  days,  he  can  seize  any  part  of  the  proper- 
ty, and  sell  it,  to  pay  himself.  The  worst  of  il 
s,  that  he  can  also  seize  and  sell  the  property 


TITHES.  197 

of  any  other  person  which  happens  to  be  on 
the  spot  at  the  time.  I  have  heard  an  amusing 
story  of  a  certain  squire,  who  sent  a  bailiff  to 
distrain  for  rent :  the  bailiff,  looking  over  the 
fields,  espied  a  remarkably  fine  parcel  of  black 
cattle,  which  he  seized  upon  and  sold  without 
in(iuiry.  It  happened,  how^ever,  that  these 
were  the  landlord's  oivii  beasts^  which  had 
accidentally  strayed  in ! 

The  clergyman  comes  next ;  his  claims  are 
called  tithes,  or  tenths.  The  case  is  this :  the 
Church  of  England  being  by  law  established, 
it  became  necessary  to  appoint  and  support  its 
niinisters.  Custom  and  law  have,  for  many 
a2;es,  given  a  tenth  part  of  the  produce  of  the 
laad  to  the  clergy,  for  the  performance  of 
their  duties.  This  portion  they  may  take 
(*r-  her  in  kind,  that  is,  the  tenth  sheaf  of  corn, 


198  POOR  RATES. 

the  tenth  calf  and  lamb,  the  tenth  measure  of 
milk,  the  tenth  egg;  or  they  may  agree  to 
an  equivalent,  or  composition,  which  perhaps 
amounts  to  five  or  six  shillings  an  acre.  This 
method  is  usual,  and  saves  some  trouble  to 
the  parties  concerned,  and  perhaps,  too,  some 
strife. 

The  overseers  are  parish  officers,  whose 
business  it  is  to  collect  and  lay  out  the  rates, 
or  monies  levied  for  the  support  of  the  poor. 
These  vary  in  amount,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Sometimes  they  are  equal  to  a  fourth, 
sometimes  to  three-fourths  of  the  whole  rent ; 
so  that  a  farmer  who  pays  the  landlord  four 
hundred  pounds  a  year,  may  have  to  find  also 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  for  the  clergy- 
man, and  one,  two,  or  three  hundred  for  the  poor 
— those  only  (it  should  be)  who  are  unable,  by 


WAGES.  199 

their  labour,  to  support  themselves  on  their 
wages.  This  brings  us  to  another  branch  of 
his  expenditure. 

The  wages  of  men  cannot  long  be  fixed; 
they  depend  on  the  season  of  the  year — the 
demand  for  labour — the  price  of  grain,  and  the 
kind  of  employment.  I  think  I  may  say  that  a 
person  who  farms  four  hundred  acres,  will 
have  tgn  or  a  dozen  men  to  pay  on  the  Satur- 
day night,  at  the  rate  of  perhaps  from  ten  to 
fourteen  shillings  a-piece.  The  man  in  the 
print  does  not  look  as  if  he  were  receiving  less 
than  he  had  fairly  earned. 

With  regard  to  the  purchase  of  stock  and 
materials ;  the  charge  for  machines  and  imple- 
ments ;  carpenters^  builders',  wheeleil^',  and 
blacksmiths'  bills ;  the  cost,  or  worth  of  his 
own  produce  for  the  cattle  and  horses,  which 


x^lSCELLANEOUS  EXPENSES.  201 

he  is  obliged  to  keep ;  we  cannot  state  particu- 
lar sums.  AH  I  can  say  is,  that  these  pay- 
ments, added  to  rent,  rates,  and  taxes,  are 
such  as  to  make  farming,  now  that  only  a 
comparatively  low  price  can  be  obtained  for 
the  produce,  at  best  a  hazardous,  and,  in  many 
cases,  a  ruinous  concern. 

But  let  the  times  be  what  they  may,  the 
farmer  can  never  succeed  who  has  not  judg- 
ment, industry,  experience,  and  perseverance. 
His  payments  must  be  heavy ;  and  they  will 
exceed  his  receipts,  if  he  makes  a  bad  bargain 
with  his  landlord,  niismanages  and  neglects  his 
land,  and  buys  and  sells  imprudently.  Before 
he  can  deal  to  advantage,  he  ought  to  know 
well,  and  judge  accurately  of  the  real  quality 
and  value  of  the  commodity,  according  to  the 
mai'kets.     He  ought  to  understand  something 


202  MISFORTUNES. 

of  many  trades  connected  with  his  own  —  a^ 
those  of  the  miller,  the  salesman,  the  butcher, 
the  grazier,  the  cattle  and  horse  dealer  —  the 
land-agent,  the  builder,  and  even  the  lawyer, 
as  far  as  his  kind  of  property  is  concerned. 
He  who  is  thus  qualified,  has  talents  and 
knowledge,  which  would  make  a  man  respec- 
table, and  most  likely  successful,  in  any  other 
sphere  or  profession. 

But  the  farmer  is  subject  to  numerous  mis- 
fortunes, which  none  can  prevent  or  foresee : 
bad  seasons ;  blight  and  mildew ;  diseases  in 
cattle ;  sudden  falls  in  the  value  of  produce ; 
and  various  other  casualties.  A  few  of  these 
circumstances  occurring  together,  may  reduce 
his  profits  to  nothing,  and  compel  him  to 
waste  his  capital ;  and  when  that  is  gone,  to 
trade  with  other  men's  mone}  ;  so  that,  at  last, 
he  may  sink  to  ruin. 


A  FARMER'S  COMFORTS.  203 

But,  although  thus  exposed  to  misfortune, 
the  farmer  has  great  reason  to  trust  a  kind 
Providence,  which  has  promised  that  seed 
time  and  harvest  shall  not  fail.  In  nearly 
every  country  on  the  globe  there  are  times 
when  farmers  suffer  in  common  with  other 
classes  of  society ;  but  after  all,  in  a  course 
of  years,  no  other  class  perhaps  is  more 
smiled  upon  —  none  are  more  independent 
—  none  more  happy.  In  England,  it  is 
true,  the  farmers  have  a  hard  time  of  it, 
as  the  saying  is,  but  they  may  escape  from 
some  of  their  burdens  by  and  by.  Here, 
in  the  United  States,  we  have  much  to 
encourage  us  —  generally  good  crops  —  a 
fair  market  —  light  taxes  —  and,  more  than 
all,  liberty  to  work  or  play  as  we  please. 
Leaving    others    to    follow    what    profession 


204  A    FARMER'S    COMFORTS. 

they  please,  we  shall  still  cling  to  the 
honourable  society  of  the  farmers,  and  still 
say, 

Speed  the  Plough. 


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REC'U  i-U 

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11^  AY  10  1933 
MAY  12  19c 


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MAY  18  1947 
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